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TOURNAL
!
OF THE
flssociaiioo of Eagipii Societies.
St. Louis. Minneapolis. Pacific Coast. Louisiana.
Cleveland. St. Paul. Detroit. Toledo.
Boston. Montana. Buffalo.
CONTENTS AND INDEX.
VOLUME XXXIV.
January to June, 1905«
PUBLISHED BY
Fred. Brooks, Secretary of the Board of Managers of the
Association of Engineering Societies.
31 Milk Street, Boston
83846
« .
.dJ
CONTENTS.
VOL. XXXIV, January-June, 1905.
For alphabetical index, see page v.
No. i. JANUARY. page
New Data on the Weight of a Crowd of People. L. J. Johnson i
Recent Work in Unifying Specifications for Engineering Materials.
J. Parker Snow 7
Obituary —
James Thomas Boyd 11
Reuben Shirreffs 12
Macy Stanton Pope 14
Association of Engineering Societies 17
Proceedings of Societies.
No. 2. FEBRUARY.
The Sewage Disposal Works at Saratoga, N. Y. F. A. Barbour .... 3$
Discussion. Messrs. Geo. A. Carpenter, F. L. Fuller, R. S.
Weston, Freeman C. Coffin, L. M. Hastings, C- E. A.
Winslow, Dr. D. C. Moriarta 53
Concrete-Steel Construction. C.A.P. Turner 60
Test of an Indirect Heater Coil. S. C. Root 65
Proceedings of Societies.
No. 3. MARCH.
Pacific Coast Fall Meeting of 1904.
Hydro-Electric Power Development and Transmission in California.
Robert McF. Doble 75
Weak Points in Long-Distance Electric Transmission. James C.
Bennett 99
Discussion. R. W. Myers 104
Engineering and the Law. Frank P. Medina 106
Trade Schools. Edward Thomas Hewitt 115
Discussion. Prof. W. F. Durand, Prof. C. B. Wing, Messrs.
Marsden Mans on, A . E. Roberts, Orion Brooks, G. W. Dickie,
E. T . Hewitt 125
Phenomena of Machine Operation. John Richards 130
Discussion. Thomas Motrin, Prof. W . F . Durand 138
The Man and the Ship. George W. Dickie 139
Obituary —
George H . Wallis 157
Proceedings of Societies.
(i")
iv ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
No. 4. APRIL. page
The Preservation of Timber with Antiseptics. E. H. Bowser 159
The Strength of Concrete. Sanford E. Thompson 171
Discussion. /. R. Worcester, Prof. C. M. Spofford 205
Obituary —
William Ellery Channing Cox 2 1<,>
Burr Bassell 220
Charles Mason Wilkes 222
Proceedings of Societies.
No. 5. MAY.
Recent Terminal Improvements in St. Louis. Daniel Breck . 225
Some Details of Reconstruction Work, St. Louis Union Station.
A. P. Greensf elder 240
Aluminothermics. E. Stuetz 262
Underground and Submarine Conduits for Electric Wires. D. A.
Harrington 265
Proceedings of Societies.
No. 6. JUNE.
The Use of Concrete in Sewer Construction. Walter C. Parmley .... 281
Discussion. The Chairman, Messrs. C. R. Gow, H. P. Eddy,
W. S. Johnson, E. S. Dorr, H. F. Bryant, B. Brewer, G. W.
Blodgett, S. Smith, E. S. Lamed, E. Worthington, W. Parker,
W. C. Parmley 293
Sewage Purification with Special Reference to the Problem in Ohio.
R. Winthrop Pratt 310
A Winter Visit to Some Sewage Disposal Plants in Ohio, Wisconsin
and Illinois. C .- E. A. Winslow 335
Discussion. The Chairman, Messrs. X. H. Goodnongh, F. C.
Coffin, Dwight Porter, L. Metcalf, R. S. Weston, G. A . Car-
penter, C.-E. A . Winslow 352
Proceedings of Societies.
I N DEX.
VOL. XXXI V, January-June, 1905.
Abbreviations. — P = Paper; D = Discussion; I = Illustrated.
Names of authors of papers, etc., are printed in italics.
PAGE
Aluminothermics. E. Stuetz P., I,, May, 262
Association of Engineering Societies Jan., 17
Jjarbour, Frank A. The Sewage Disposal Works afSaratoga, N. Y.
P., D., I., Feb., 33
Bassell, Burr . Obituary. Technical Society of the Pacific
Coast April, 220
Bennett, James C. Weak Points in Long-Distance Electric Trans-
mission P., D., March, 99
Bowser, E. H. The Preservation of Timber with Antiseptics.
P., April, 159
Boyd, James Thomas . Obituary. Boston Society of Civil
Engineers Jan., 1 1
Breck, Daniel. Recent Terminal Improvements in St. Louis.
P., I., May, 225
L/oil, Test of an Indirect Heater . S. C. Root P., I., Feb., 65
Concrete in Sewer Construction, Use of . W. C. Parmley.
P., D., I., June, 281
Concrete-Steel Construction. C. A. P. Turner P., I., Feb., 60
Concrete, The Strength of . Sanford E. Thompson.
P., D., I., April, 171
Conduits, Underground and Submarine , for Electric Wires.
D. A. Harrington P., I., May, 265
Cox, William Ellery Channing . Obituary. Toledo Society
of Engineers April, 219
Crowd of People, New Data on the Weight of a . Lewis J .
Johnson P., D., I., Jan., 1
\jickie, George W. The Man and the Ship P., March, 139
Doble, Robert McF. Hydro-Electric Power Development and Trans-
mission in California P., I., March, 75
Jjlectric Transmission, Weak Points in Long-Distance . James
C. Bennett P., D., March, 99
Electric Wires, Underground and Submarine Conduits for . D.
A. Harrington P-,'F, May, 265
Engineering and the Law. Frank P. Medina P., March, 106
M
vi ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
PAGE
{jreensf elder, A . P. Some Details of Reconstruction Work, St. Louis
Union Station P., I., May, 240
narrinpton, D. A., Underground and Submarine Conduits for Elec-
tric Wires P., I., May, 265
Heater Coil, Test of an Indirect . 5. C. Root P., I., Feb., 65
Hewitt, Edward Thomas. Trade Schools P., D., March, 115
Hydro-Electric Power Development and Transmission in California.
Robert McF. Doble P., I., March, 75
J ohnson, Lewis J. New Data on the Weight of a Crowd of People.
P., D., I., Jan., 1
Jjaw, Engineering and the . Frank P. Medina P., March, 106
Long-Distance Electric Transmission, Weak Points in — — . James
C. Bennett P., D., March, 99
.Machine Operation, Phenomena of . John Richards.
P., D., March, 130
Man and the Ship, The . George W . Dickie P., March, 139
Materials, Recent Work in Unifying Specifications for Engineering
. J. Parker Snoiv P., Jan., 7
Medina, Frank P. Engineering and the Law P. March, 106
JN ew Data on the Weight of a Crowd of People. Lewis J. Johnson.
P., D., I., Jan., 1
Ubituary —
Bassell, Burr . Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.
April, 220
Boyd, James Thomas . Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Jan., 11
Cox, William Ellery Channing . Toledo Society of Engi-
neers April, 2 19
Pope, Macy Stanton . Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Jan., 14
Shirreffs, Reuben . Boston Society of Civil Engineers. Jan., 12
Wallis, George H. . Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.
March, 157
Wilkes, Charles Mason . Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
April, 222
Larmley, Walter C. Use of Concrete in Sewer Construction.
P., D., I., June, 281
Phenomena of Machine Operation. John Richards . . P., D., March, 130
Pope, Macy Stanton . Obituary. Boston Society of Civil En-
gineers Jan., 14
Power, Hydro-Electric , Development and Transmission in Cal-
ifornia. Robert McF. Doble P., I., March, 75
Pratt, R. Winthrop. Sewage Purification with Special Reference to
the Problem in Ohio P., I., June, 3 10
Preservation of Timber with Antiseptics. E. H. Bowser . . . P., April, 159
INDEX.
Xvecent Terminal Improvements in St. Louis. Daniel Brcck.
P., L, May
Recent Work in Unifying Specifications for Engineering Materials
J . Parker Snow P., Jan.
Reconstruction Work, Some Details of , St. Louis Union Station
A. P. Greensfelder P., I., May,
Richards, John. Phenomena of Machine Operation . . P., D., March
Root, S. C. Test of an Indirect Heater Coil P., I., Feb.
Ot. Louis, Recent Terminal Improvements in . Darnel Breck
P., I., May
St. Louis Union Station, Some Details of Reconstruction Work
A. P. Greensfelder P., I., May
Saratoga, N. Y., Sewage Disposal Works at . F. A. Barbour
P., D., I., Feb.
Sewage Disposal Plants, Winter Visit to , in Ohio, Wisconsin
and Illinois. C.-E. A. Winslow P., D., I., June,
Sewage Disposal Works at Saratoga, N. Y. F. A. Barbour.
P., D., I., Feb.
Sewage Purification with Special Reference to the Problem in Ohio
R. Winthrop Pratt P., I., June
Sewer Construction, Use of Concrete in . Walter C. Parmley
P., D., I., June
Shirreffs, Reuben . Obituary. Boston Society of Civil Engi
neers Jan.
Snow, J . Parker. Recent Work in Unifying Specifications for Engi
neering Materials P., Jan.
Some Details of Reconstruction Work, St. Louis Union Station
.4. P. Greensfelder P., I., May
Specifications, Recent Work in Unifying , for Engineering Mate-
rials. J . Parker Snow P., Jan.
Strength of Concrete. Sanford E. Thompson P., D., I., April
Stuetz, E. Aluminothermics P., I., May
Submarine Conduits, Underground and , for Electric Wires
D. A . Harrington P., I., May
.terminal Improvements in St. Louis, Recent . Daniel Breck
P., I., May
Test of an Indirect Heater Coil. S. C. Root .P., I., Feb.
Thompson, Sanford E. Strength of Concrete P., D., I., April
Timber, Preservation of , with Antiseptics. E. H. Bowser.
P., April
Trade Schools. Edward Thomas Hewitt P., D., March
Transmission, Weak Points in Long-Distance Electric . James
C. Bennett P., D., March
Turner, C. A. P. Concrete-Steel Construction P., I., Feb.
Underground and Submarine Conduits for Electric Wires. D. A
Harrington P., I., May
Use of Concrete in Sewer Construction. Walter C. Parmley.
P., D., I., June
225
7
240
130
65
225
240
33
335
33
310
7
240
7
171
262
265
225
65
171
!59
"5
99
60
26s
viii ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
PAGE
W allis, George H. . Obituary. Technical Society of the Pa-
cific Coast March, 157
Weak Points in Long-Distance Electric Transmission. James C.
Bennett P., D., March, 99
Weight of Crowd of People, New Data, on the . Lewis J . John-
son P., D., I., Jan., 1
Wilkes, Charles Mason . Obituary. Boston Society of Civil
Engineers April, 222
Winslow, C.-E. A. Winter Visit to some Sewage Disposal Plants in
Ohio, Wisconsin and Illinois P., D., I., June, 335
Winter Visit to some Sewage Disposal Plants in Ohio, Wisconsin
and Illinois. C.-E. A. Winslow P., D., I., June, 335
" ' vn
Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.
AsSOCIATIO
N
OF
Engineering Societies.
Organized 1881.
VOL. XXXIV. JANUARY, 1905. No. i.
This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or
for the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.
NEW DATA ON THE WEIGHT OF A CROWD OF
PEOPLE.
By Lewis J. Johnson, Member of the Boston Society of Civi^.j, Engineers.
[Read before the Society, December 21, 1904.*] ^
The weight of a crowd of people is one of the most important
bits of data used by the structural engineer. It would seem to
be one of the most easily determined, yet it is one on which the
authorities differ widely, and one which they understate and, with
few and unfamiliar exceptions, seriously understate. The engineer-
ing practice of both Europe and America accords closely with
Trautwine's recommendation.
"On bridges for turnpikes and common roads, no probable con-
tingency could crowd people to such an extent as to weigh more than
80 lbs. per sq. ft. of floor ; and this may safely be taken as the maxi-
mum load on spans of 20 or more feet. To compensate, however,
for impact, we recommend to adopt 100 lbs. as the limit for crowds."f
In a footnote on the same page, Mr. Trautwine cites experi-
ments in support of the preceding, as follows :
"The engineers of the Chelsea bridge, London, packed picked
men. upon the platform of a weigh-bridge, with a result of 84 lbs.
per sq. ft. Mr. Nash, architect of Buckingham Palace, wedged men
together as closely as they could possibly stand upon an area of 20
ft. diameter; the last man being lowered down from above, among
the others. Result, 120 lbs. per sq. ft."
.While 80 to 100 lbs. per sq. ft. are generally accepted as the
maximum for bridge-work, the city building laws of this country
specify 80 to 150 lbs. for the minimum floor loads for public as-
* Manuscript received December 31, 1904. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
f Civil Engineer's Pocket Book, 18th edition, p. 726.
1
2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
sembly rooms — some cities naming the lower value, others the
higher, and others still giving intermediate values.
Why the proper assumptions for buildings have been commonly
held at a higher figure than for bridges, it is not easy to say. Perhaps
it is because the increased cost of the building by leaving a larger
margin is relatively a less serious matter than with a bridge, and
the incentive for close figuring is relatively less felt. An additional
factor may be that the likelihood for defective construction may
have been regarded somewhat greater in the cases of buildings than
with bridges. There may be other causes. It certainly does not
seem attributable to any current belief that the weight of crowds
might reach 150 lbs. per sq. ft., for such a belief would certainly
have been definitely stated somewhere and would have been felt in
bridge practice.
However this may be, the writer has been slowly coming to
distrust the correctness of prevailing ideas on the whole subject,
and for some months past has been making experiments in the at-
tempt to get some first-hand information. The men at his disposal
were his own students of engineering, and their patient and intel-
ligent interest has alone made the work possible. The results up
to last April were published,* and accompanying them a series of
nine extracts from writers of various countries. The writer had at
that time obtained a maximum result of 156.9 lbs. per sq. ft., due
to 67 men averaging 15 1.5 lbs. each in a space of 64 sq. ft., and
this is what was published. The authorities quoted in the nine ex-
tracts gave some 80, some 120 lbs. per sq. ft. as the maximum
possible from a stationary crowd, one only going above 120. Mr.
Stoney reported that he got 147.4 lbs. per sq. ft. from 58 Irish
laborers, averaging 145 lbs. each, packed into a space of 57 sq. ft.
It was observed that the authorities, with the exception of Stoney,
rarely cited any deliberately conducted experiment. The best-
known experiments are those quoted by Trautwine and given
above. Stoney's seem to have been generally overlooked.
The result published last April was roughly verifiedf by Pro-
fessor Spofford, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and
later by Herr Hunscheidt in Bonn 4 These gentlemen reached
results of 142.5 and 144 lbs. per sq. ft., respectively, each making
it clear that the limit had not been reached. In the discussion that
* Engineering Nczvs, April 14, 1904, p. 360.
f Engineering Nezvs, May 5, 1904, p. 426.
t Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung, October 8, 1904, and Engineering
Nezvs, November 3, 1904, p. 406.
WEIGHT OF A CROWD OF PEOPLE. 3
followed, the results of Professor Kernot, of Melbourne, were re-
called. He reported* 143. 1 lbs. per sq. ft. as his maximum.
The writer gave the matter no further attention till within
the last few weeks, when two of the foremost American structural
engineers publicly expressed their belief that a load from a crowd
of people in buildings in excess of 40 to 45 lbs. per sq. ft. is not
exceeded in practice often enough to demand much consideration.
One of these gentlemen, Mr. C. C. Schneider, stated :f
"A live load of 40 lbs. per sq. ft. . . . may be considered the
maximum load to be provided for as a distributed load for all floors
on which crowds of people mav be expected to congregate, such as
all kinds of rooms in dwelling houses, apartment houses, hotels,
office buildings, schools, churches, theaters, concert halls, ballrooms,
drill rooms, etc."
Further on, to allow for vibrations in the case of ballrooms, drill
rooms, gymnasiums,^ e^c., ne recommended assuming an additional
40 lbs. per sq. ft., after stating that
"a uniform load of 40 lbs. per sq. ft. will scarcely ever be exceeded
by a crowd of people."
Mr. Theodore Cooper,§ in supporting Mr. Schneider's assump-
tion of 40 lbs. per sq. ft. and in illustrating the rarity of a load ab^ve
that figure, says :
" Most people have experienced the discomforts of a crowded
Elevated Railway car when not another person can be squeezed in-
side of the gates. Such a crowd, numbering about 120 persons and
not weighing more than 18,000 lbs., is contained in a space of about
400 sq. ft., including platforms, or 45 lbs. per sq. ft."
In view of these statements, the time seemed appropriate for
further work on the problem, and for the sake of taking part in the
discussion with Messrs. Schneider and Cooper, the writer had a
series of photographs taken showing bird's-eye views of crowds
(in a space 6 ft. square) at different degrees of compactness from
about 40 lbs. per sq. ft. to about 150. These photographs are re-
produced in Figs. 1 to 8, and are sufficiently explained by their
titles. Special attention may be called to Figs. 1, 2 and 3 as repre-
senting crowds approximating Mr. Schneider's 40 lbs. per sq. ft. and
to Fig. 4 as showing a crowd somewhat more compact than Mr.
Cooper's Elevated Railway crowd.
* Engineering News, March 16, 1893, p. 252.
t Proceedings American Society of Civil Engineers, September, 1904, vol.
xxx, p. 676.
t Ibid., p. 680.
% Proceedings American Society of Civil Engineers, November, 1904, p
4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
In Fig. 3, the men are in an alcove four feet square. Specially
light men were selected for this test for the sake of showing a
specially crowded example of 40 lbs. per sq. ft. One less man, if
the average were 160 lbs. each, would produce the requisite 40
lbs. with considerably less appearance of crowding.
In Fig. 7, the very high average weight (167.7 ms. Per man) is
due to the fact that the crowd shown is the remnant of the crowd of
Fig. 9 after twelve of the lighter men near the gate had left the box.
In all the experiments in close crowding, the men were, up to
this time, left to arrange themselves.* They naturally stood entirely
at random, facing in all directions.
Obviously, the next step was to see what could be reached
by facing the men all one way, especially as they would be likely to
be so arranged in a constriction in a street caused by a drawbridge
or in standing in a crowded meeting. At the same time some care
was taken to select tall men, with a view to finding out what a
crowd actually might weigh. The result, to the writer's great
astonishment, was on the first trial of this process 176.4 lbs. per
sq. ft., due to 40 men in a space 6 ft. square. A repetition of it for
sake of a better photograph and somewhat better selection of the
men was made. The result (Fig. 9) was 181. 3 lbs. per sq. ft., due
to 40 men, averaging 163 lbs. each, in a space 6 ft. square. This
result is, of course, an extreme, evidently to be put in the same
class with the 84 lbs. and 120 lbs. in the quotation from Trautwine.
The great increase in the results of this fall over those of last spring
seems to be due largely to the better economy of room from facing
the men all one way and partly to the dimensions of the box being
such as to work up with little waste room, both of which are condi-
tions favoring congestion to be met in practice.
Though 181 lbs. per sq. ft. must be conceded to be an extreme,
it is believed that something very close to that figure is reached
over the whole drawbridge on the way from Soldiers' Field to
Harvard Square after one of the great football games.
Moreover, if 40 men, averaging 163 lbs. each, can stand in no
serious discomfort in 36 sq. ft., it is clear that 40 men of the ordi-
nary size of 150 lbs. each could easily do so. The result then would
be 166.7 ms. per sq. ft.
The conclusion seems irresistible that loads of 180 lbs. per sq.
ft. may actually occur in exceptional cases ; that 160 lbs. must fre-
quently occur; that 140 lbs. must be common on station platforms,
in corridors and many other places frequented by throngs of people ;
* Except in Fig. 7, which, as just stated, was taken after Fig. 9.
Fig. i. 41.8 Lbs. per So. Ft.
( 10 men, averaging 150.6 lbs., on 36
sq. ft.)
Fig. 2. Same Men as in Fig. i.
Differently Spaced.
Fig. 3. 41.8 Lbs. per Sq. Ft.
(5 men, averaging 133.8 lbs., on 16
sq. ft.)
Fig. 4. 47.2 Lbs. per So. Ft.
(11 men, averaging 154.6 lbs., on 3b
sq. ft.)
Figs. 1-4. Crowds Weighing 41.8 and 47.2 Lbs. per So. Ft.
*1
ft
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Fig. 5. 83.7 Lbs. per Sq. Ft.
(20 men, averaging 150.7 lbs.)
Fig. 6. 100 Lbs. per Sq. Ft.
(24 men, averaging 150 lbs.)
,f *m**L
f*:
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4 if
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Fig. 7. 130.4 Lbs. per So. Ft.
(28 men, averaging 167.7 lbs.)
Fig. 8. 154.2 Lbs. per Sq. Ft.
(37 men, averaging 150.1 lbs.)
Figs. 4-8. Crowds Weighing Between 80 and 155 Lbs. per Sq. Ft.,
Occupying in Each Case a Space of 36 Sq. Ft.
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'.■■
1
Fig. 9. 181.3 Lbs. per Sq. Ft.
(40 men, at 163.2 lbs. average, on 36 sq. ft.)
Fig. io. Apparatus Used in Photographing Crowds for the Determina-
tion of Floor Loads.
WEIGHT OF A CROWD OF PEOPLE. 5
that 80 lbs. per sq. ft. must be common at social gatherings in
private houses. The conclusion is equally clear that the margin of
safety in many existing structures designed for 80 to 100 lbs. per
sq. ft. (to say nothing of 40 to 45) must be much less than has
been supposed. Probably the correct inference is that the ex-
perience of many years in many lands has demonstrated that the
margin has been sufficient, nevertheless. Even if that be true, it
is no reason why we should remain in the dark about how much a
crowd of people actually does weigh. It is orily with the correct
knowledge of the maximum that engineers can intelligently decide
for what load any part of any structure may properly be propor-
tioned. In thus deciding, it will not be forgotten that a crowd of
people is the very last load which should be endangered by too small
a margin of safety even "once in a great while."
Fig. 10 shows the box or pen in which the men gathered (after
being weighed inside the building) and the scaffolding on which the
camera was mounted. The lens was pointed directly downward.
The men entered the box through the gate at the right, and when
the box was full the gate was closed and secured by the heavy bar
shown. The braces running to the side of the porch and the wall
of the building were for strengthening the box against internal
pressure, which, with forty men in the inclosure, became considerable
— especially when they took it into their heads to take a long breath
simultaneously. The men were requested to look up toward the
camera, so as to be more easily distinguishable for counting, and
so as to be identifiable as a check upon the records.
It may be interesting to add that what may be called the
asymptotic value of the weight of a crowd of men must be about
218 lbs. per sq. ft. (possibly more than this rather than less with
men of varying height) . This figure was reached upon examination
of data kindly furnished by Dr. Sargent, Director of the Harvard
Gymnasium. It was obtained by dividing the weight of a man 6
ft. 3 in. tall, a former football captain, by his maximum horizontal
cross-section as obtained by a planimeter. This maximum section
was, of course, through the chest, including the arms. The weight
of this man was 177 lbs., and maximum cross-section 117 sq. in.,
both quantities exclusive of clothing.
In closing, the writer takes pleasure in thanking not only the
students who cheerfully submitted to the packing process, but also
many colleagues and friends who rendered much assistance, and
particularly Mr. E. E. Pettee, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E., and
Mr. N. E. Olds, who took the photographs.
6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
DISCUSSION.
Prof. C. M. Spofford. — Having been somewhat surprised by
the unexpectedly high values reached by Professor Johnson in pre-
liminary experiments upon the weight of crowds, the speaker un-
dertook to check these results by ascertaining how heavy a live
load he could obtain on his office floor. In order to do this he
packed into the room a crowd of students taken at random
from the three upper classes of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. The area of the room used was 87.3 square feet
gross, no deduction being made for several projections which in-
terfered somewhat with the closest possible packing. After 83 men
had entered, the supply immediately at hand became exhausted and
no effort was made to find others, although there was room for
several more near the door, and a systematic packing of those in
the room would probably have provided still more free space. The
total weight thus obtained was 12,443 lbs., an average of 149.9 ms-
per man and of 142.5 lbs. per sq. foot of floor.
Although the crowd just described was very dense, the con-
ditions were apparently no worse than obtain occasionally at points
of great congestion. For example, during the recent convention of
the Grand Army at Boston, the illumination of the Public Gardens
was one of the sights which everybody wanted to see. As a con-
sequence the foot bridge there was frequently packed with a crowd
of such a density that the average load per foot upon the entire
bridge must have at least equaled the above figure.
The photographs shown by Professor Johnson furnish such a
complete refutation of the theory that it is only in extreme cases
that the weight of a crowd can reach as high a figure as 80 or 90
lbs. per sq. ft. that the speaker hopes that no writer will again
advance these figures as extreme limits.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 7
KECENT WORK IN UNIFYING SPECIFICATIONS FOR
ENGINEERING MATERIALS.
By J. Parker Snow, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
[Notes of a talk at an informal meeting of the Society, December 7, 1904.*]
An earnest effort is being made by many scientific associations
to unify and modernize the requirements for structural materials,
and to bring out the best practice in the use of these materials in
construction. The object of this description is to lay before those
interested, some of the work being done on these lines in this and
other countries. The American Railway Engineering and Mainte-
nance of Way Association is one of the organizations whose object
is pre-eminently the accomplishment of the above results.
This Association is composed largely of railroad and munici-
pal engineers, together with many engineers of manufactories and a
fair sprinkling of college professors and consulting engineers. The
work of the Association is done by standing committees whose per-
sonnel is changed somewhat, but whose work is continuous from
year to year.
There are at present 16 committees on the following subjects:
I Roadway.
II Ballasting.
III Ties.
IV Rail.
V Track.
VI Buildings.
VII Wooden Bridges and Trestles.
VIII Masonry.
IX Signs, Fences, Crossings and Cattle-guards.
X Signaling and Interlocking.
XI Records, Reports and Accounts.
XII Uniform Rules, Organization, Titles, Code, etc.
XIII Water Service.
XIV Yards and Terminals.
XV Iron and Steel Structures.
XVI Economics of Railway Location.
The Society was organized in 1899, and the first formal meeting
was held in March, 1900. The headquarters of the Association are
at room 1562 Monadnock Building, Chicago, 111., and the annual
meetings are held there in March of each year.
* Manuscript received January 23, 1905.— Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Three of the committees, I, IV and XV, have submitted speci-
fications on roadway, rails and iron and steel structufes. These
specifications are printed in pamphlet form and are on sale at a
nominal price by the Secretary.
The specification compiled by the Committee on Iron and Steel
Structures was adopted by the Association in 1903, and covers
material and workmanship for railroad bridges. The grade of steel
recommended in this specification is called structural steel, having
a range of ultimate strength from 55,000 to 65,000 lbs. per sq. in.
Since the adoption of this specification the Committee has been en-
gaged in extending its scope, and will present to the Association, at
the coming annual meeting, schedules covering a few amendments
to the adopted specification ; a specification for details of design ;
impact allowance ; live loads ; specifications for special metals ; unit
strains and proportion of parts ; and general features, together with
reports on an extensive series of experiments on riveted joints and
on punching and reaming, and a historical sketch of the development
of the American bridge specification.
The aim of the Committee has been to compile a specification
that is general enough to cover all ordinary railroad bridges, and,
at the same time, in sufficient detail to guide experienced designers
to uniform results.
The American Society for Testing Materials, a society com-
posed of engineers and manufacturers, which does its work largely
by means of standing committees, something on the same lines as the
Maintenance of Way Association, has a large Committee on Stand-
ard Specifications for Iron and Steel (Committee A), which has
lately approved the specification for structural steel adopted in 1903
by the Maintenance of Way Association. This Society has done
and is still doing a great deal of work in unifying the requirements
for all classes of materials used in construction ; having committees
as follows :
A Iron and steel.
B Cast Iron.
C Cements.
D Paving and building brick.
E Preservative coatings for iron and steel.
F Heat treatment of iron and steel.
G Magnetic properties of iron and steel.
H Road materials.
I Reinforced concrete.
J Foundry coke.
K Methods of testing.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR ENGINEERING MATERIALS. g
L Sewer pipes.
M Stay bolts.
N Lubricants.
O Uniform speed of commercial testing.
P Fireproofing materials.
O Grading of timber.
Committee B, consisting of 67 members, has lately reported a
series of specifications filling 12 large pages of print and covering
the following varieties of cast iron : foundry pig iron ; cast-iron pipe
and special castings ; locomotive cylinders ; cast-iron car wheels ;
malleable castings, and gray iron castings.
Committee C is acting jointly with Committee VIII of the
Maintenance of Way Association, the Association of American
Cement Manufacturers and a special committee of the American So-
ciety of Civil Engineers, in the work of drafting complete specifica-
tions for cement and the compounds of which it is the principal
factor.
This Society is affiliated with the European International Asso-
ciation for Testing Materials, which is working on somewhat similar
lines, but confines itself more particularly to scientific questions of
methods of testing, rather than to the formulation of commercial
specifications for materials.
A powerful association in England, called the Engineering
Standards Committee, has lately been organized to do similar work
for our English cousins in a way that is truly British in its thorough-
ness and completeness.
This organization is supported by the following powerful
societies :
The Institution of Civil Engineers.
The Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
The Institution of Naval Architects.
The Iron and Steel Institute.
The Institution of Electrical Engineers.
The British and Indian governments, through the Board of
Trade, have granted the committees very substantial financial aid
(some $20,000) for the past year; and an equivalent sum has been
contributed by the supporting societies.
The work is in the hands of 35 committees working under the
direction of a main committee. The object is to standardize prac-
tice in all lines of mechanical engineering, and to formulate specifi-
cations for all kinds of materials used in construction. Its results
cannot fail to revolutionize English engineering. We thus see that
io ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
all over the civilized world there is a movement toward uniformity
in practice and an interchange of knowledge and experiences. The
tendency is toward united rather than individual effort. These
associations are comparatively young, the latest and grandest of
all, The English Standards Committee, being hardly three years old.
It behooves American engineers to keep posted on the doings
of these associations if they wish, in the race of human progress, to
keep on the right side of the distance pole.
OBITUARY.
OBITUARY.
James Thomas Boyd.
Member of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
James Thomas Boyd was born on November 25, 1845, at
Fishkill-on-Hudson, and died on November 3, 1904, at Boston,
Massachusetts. He spent the first six years of his life at Fishkill ;
then his family moved to Newburgh, N. Y., where he entered the
public school. He graduated from the Newburgh Academy in 1859,
and entered an apprenticeship in the Washington Iron Foundry.
There his work was supplemented by instruction in draughting
under the foreman of the works. In 1864, he took the examination
for engineer in the Navy, and on October nth was appointed Act-
ing Third Assistant Engineer. His first service was on the gun-
boat "Dumbarton," then belonging to the North Atlantic Blockading
Squadron. In March, 1865, he was transferred to the ironclad
"Casco," fitting out at the New York Navy Yard. The close of the
war necessitated a great reduction of the military establishment,
and Mr. Boyd was honorably discharged from the service on July
31, 1865. He returned to Newburgh and then came to this part of
Massachusetts for a position in the draughting-room of the Atlantic
Works. With the exception of two short intervals, he was con-
nected with these works during the remainder of his life, either as
employee or director. For two years he was away in charge of
the chain works at East Bridgewater, and for several years he
was in the National Tube Works. From May, 1892, to March, 1895,
he was manager of the Blake Pump Works at East Cambridge. In
the latter year he opened an office in Boston as consulting engineer,
serving in that capacity the Atlantic Works, the Dominion Coal
Company, and the Edison Illuminating Company. He was a mem-
ber of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers from May 20, 1891,
to November 3, 1904, and besides he was a member of the following
societies and clubs :
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
The American Society of Naval Engineers.
The American Society of Naval Architects and Marine En-
gineers.
The New England Society of Naval Engineers.
The St. Botolph Club.
The Longwood Cricket Club.
He was married on June 25, 1874, to Mary Ellen Fuller, of
Lynn, Mass. His wife and one daughter survive him.
12 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
While his technical education, like that of most mechanical
engineers of his age, was obtained wholly in the draughting-room
and workshop, nevertheless his pronounced engineering bent and
his long experience in marine work gave him an almost unerring
sense in estimating the cost of machinery. He was often associated
with Edward Burgess in the design of steam yachts, and he per-
sonally designed the machinery for sixty-five vessels of different
types. His honesty and uprightness were so well known that on
many occasions he held the unusual position of engineer for both
parties to a contract. His generous, warm-hearted disposition made
him a most agreeable and attractive companion.
Ira N. Hollis,
Frank B. Dowst,
Committee.
Reiiben Sliirreffs.
Member of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Reuben Shirreffs was of Scotch descent, and was born in
Queens County, Nova Scotia, May 26, 1852. His boyhood was
passed in the family of his grandfather in Liverpool, N. S., where
he attended the high school, which was practically the extent of his
educational privileges. The principal of the school and his asso-
ciates testify in no unmeasured terms to his reputation for prompt-
ness, punctuality and thoroughness, traits that were predominant in
his after years.
"He never came to the class with an unprepared lesson, and his
thoroughness led him to ferret out the very foundation of things,
and the whys and wherefores had to be known. For him more than
any other pupil extended preparation had to be made by me for the
class exercises. His mind was largely mathematical, and the problem
had to be more than intricate that his sticktoativeness did not un-
ravel. He was a lad of the highest moral character, without a
questionable or degrading habit, and everybody had a good word for
him." Thus writes Mr. T. R. Pattillo, his former instructor.
In May, 1872, he became a student in the office of Clemens
Herschel, M. Am. Soc. C. E., where he remained until April, 1875.
From that date until September, 1879, he was connected with the
engineer corps of the Sudbury River Aqueduct, Boston Waterworks,
then under construction, as a draftsman, being stationed in the
South Framingham office.
The following year he spent with the Chicago, Burlington &
OBITUARY. 13
Quincy Railroad as an assistant engineer, and from September, 1880,
to June, 1 88 1, he was an assistant with the Holyoke Water Power
Company. Leaving Holyoke he went to Richmond, Va., where he
was first engineer of water power and afterward engineer of the
Richmond & Allegheny Railroad, holding the last named position
until February, 1884.
He then became a member of the firm of Stewart, Shirreffs &
Co., and for three years was engaged in the building of bridges and
other structural iron work. In March, 1887, he took charge of the
construction of the new City Hall of Richmond, which, with the re-
building of the free bridge from Richmond to Manchester, occupied
his time until December, 1889.
In January, 1890, he again became associated with Mr. Her-
schel, and was the Second Assistant Engineer of the East Jersey
Water Company, with headquarters at Paterson, N. J., and was em-
ployed for some five years upon the design and construction of the
long steel-pipe conduits and other works for supplying water to
Newark and several other communities in that section.
About this time, Mr. Frederic P. Stearns, M. Am. Soc. C. E.,
was organizing a large engineering force for the design and con-
struction of the Metropolitan Waterworks system, to provide ad-
ditional water for the Boston Metropolitan district, and offered Mr.
Shirreffs the charge of the designing and drafting department, which
he accepted, beginning his duties about October, 1895. While con-
nected with this work he had a large share in the designing of the
Wachusett dam, reservoir and aqueduct, the Clinton sewage dis-
posal plant and other parts of the Metropolitan works.
In February, 1899, he resigned his position on this work and
returned to Richmond to become chief engineer of the Virginia
Electric Railway & Development Company, which position he held
until July, 1902, designing, building and equipping a large new
steam and water power house, dam and canal at the falls of the
James River. Subsequently, in the fall of 1902, he accepted the
position of chief engineer of the Great Falls Water Power Company,
then contemplating a large development at Great Falls on the Poto-
mac River. The suspension of this work in June, 1904, had a very
depressing effect upon Mr. Shirreffs. He died by his own hand in
Washington, D. C, on August 31, 1904, the deed being without
doubt the result of temporary insanity, induced by overwork and
mental strain.
On December 18, 1878, while engaged upon the Sudbury River
Aqueduct, he joined the Boston Society of Civil Engineers. He
became a member of the New England Waterworks Association
i4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
on March 12, 1890, and of the American Society of Civil Engineers
en June 4, 1890.
He was married in May, 1884, to Miss Edith Howard, of
Richmond, Va., his wife being a member of a prominent Virginia
familv. She died in the early nineties, and on October 15, 1902, he
married Miss Emma Bruce, of Richmond, who survives him.
Mr. Shirreffs was a man of great ability and high ambitions.
He was greatly respected by all with whom he came in contact,
and he will be sincerely mourned by his former associates, to whom
the sad news of his untimely end came as a great shock and brought
a deep sense of personal loss.
Alfred D. Flinn,
John C. Chase,
. Committee.
Macy Stanton Pope.
Member of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Macy Stanton Pope was born at East Machias, Washington
County, Maine, July 26, 1869. He sprung from sturdy New Eng-
land stock — his father, James Otis Pope, and his mother, Olive F.
Chase, both being natives of East Machias. His grandfather was
Col. William Pope, a well-known citizen of Boston.
His early life was spent under the good influences of the little
town in which he was born. In the shipyards and upon the exten-
sive timber lands owned by his father ; upon the chain of lakes and
the East Machias River, which flowed past his very door into the
ocean but a short distance beyond, he grew up and gained his knowl-
edge of the woods and of the lumber industry — simple and whole-
some influences which developed the characteristics of sober thought
and sturdy independence, for which he was so marked in life.
He attended the public schools and graduated from the Wash-
ington Academy at East Machias on June 20, 1888.
He entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the
fall of 1888, and graduated from the Department of Civil Engineer-
ing in May, 1892. Although reserved and quiet, he made his in-
fluence felt in the cause of good feeling and sense among his
classmates, though he rarely appeared as a leader. He was even
then mature beyond his years, and his great strength lay in his good
balance and sanity of mind, which won the respect of his classmates
and the warm friendship of those who knew him well.
Shortly after graduating, he entered the employ of The Asso-
ciated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, of Boston, and
OBITUARY. IS
the greater part of his time there was spent on a series of tests of
cast-iron water pipe and fittings, made at Nashua, N. H., under the
direction of Mr, John R. Freeman.
In the fall of 1892, Mr. Pope returned to the Institute as assist-
ant instructor in hydraulic engineering to Prof. Dwight Porter,
and he remained there until the following June. He then re-entered
the employ of the Factory Mutuals, though a portion of his time was
again devoted to the private work of Mr. Freeman, in the prepara-
tion of designs for a new reservoir, dam and pumping station for
the Pennichuck Waterworks, at Nashua, N. H., and for repairs
and improvements upon the water-power plant of the Piscataquis
Pulp and Paper Company. From this time until February, 1898,
his time was divided between testing work along various lines, in
the laboratory of the Factory Mutuals, as well as in the field ; to
work in the plan department, involving the surveying of mills and
the drawing up of plans of them, and private work done for Mr.
Freeman. In the latter were included certain investigations relating
to the water supplies of New York and Boston.
In February, 1898, under leave of absence from the Company,
Mr. Pope returned to his home at East Machias, where he gave his
personal attention to his family estate and various allied lumber in-
terests. At this time he also made a trip to the Southern States and
California with his mother.
In June, 1900 he returned to the Factory Mutuals, and was
employed in making special inspections of mills in different parts
of the country. His broad experience in the inspection department
of the Factory Mutuals, combined with his own business training,
made him a most valuable man for the purpose. He had a strong
grasp of the practical bearing of facts, and his ability to sift evidence
in making special investigations, even in fields that were new to him,
carried conviction. One of his associates happily says, "It is the
verdict of all that the work done in each of these various fields was
well done, and that the results were received with the fullest con-
fidence by those who used them. In every case strong common
sense and a clear appreciation of relative values were predominating
characteristics."
Last June, Mr. Pope, feeling the need of rest and change, took
a ten weeks' trip abroad. He was not well during the summer, and
shortly after his return serious symptoms appeared, which developed
into acute Bright's disease, of which, after a month's illness, he died
at Brookline, Massachusetts, on December 10, 1904.
Mr. Pope took a deep interest in engineering matters, and was
a member of various engineering societies, such as the Boston
16 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers,
the New England Waterworks Association, and the Society of
Arts, as well as of the Technology and Appalachian Mountain Clubs.
He was devoted to his old home, and took a warm and active
interest in its affairs. For some years he had been one of the
Trustees of the Washington Academy at East Machias. He was
much interested in its growth and development, and gave financial
assistance to it on more than one occasion. His public interest
was well illustrated by his liberality in giving to the town, with his
two brothers, John A. and Warren F. Pope, a bridge across the
East Machias River. This structure, a fine three-span concrete and
steel masonry arch, they built as a memorial to the Pope family,
and as an object lesson to the town. The memorial tablet upon the
structure runs, in part, as follows :
This bridge is Erected in Memory of
William Pope and his sons, William Henry,
Samuel Warren, John Adams, Andrew Jackson,
James Otis, Edwin and George Washington ;
Founders of a lumbering and shipbuilding
Business, which began near this site and
Extended to neighboring towns, to Boston
And to the Pacific Coast; And which was conducted
By these men and their descendants from
1807 — 1901.
His old Alma Mater also commanded Mr. Pope's attention, and
he always took a friendly interest in its welfare and progress. In
his will he left it the substantial sum of $25,000, while other public
bequests were made to the Washington Academy, and various
Maine hospitals.
Sound common sense, simple tastes with high ideals, love of
work, a just appreciation of nature and a good knowledge of men,
were marked characteristics in the life of Macy Stanton Pope, who
will long be remembered as a worthy example of a fine and virile
type of New Englander.
Leonard Metcalf,
Loam mi F. Baldwin,
Alfred E. Burton.
ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION. 17
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Articles of Association.
The following Articles of Association were adopted at a meeting held
in Chicago, December 4, 1880. At this meeting there were present repre-
sentatives of the
Western Society of Engineers,
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland,
Engineers' Club of St. Louis,
and the
Boston Society of Civil Engineers
was represented by letter.
For the purpose of securing the benefits of closer union and the
advancement of mutual interests, the engineering societies and clubs
hereunto subscribing have agreed to the following
ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION.
ARTICLE I.
NAME AND OBJECT.
The name of this Association shall be "The Association of Engi-
neering Societies." Its primary object shall be to secure a joint publi-
cation of the papers and the transactions of the participating Societies.
' ARTICLE II.
ORGANIZATION.
Section i. The affairs of the Association shall be conducted by a
Board of Managers under such rules and by-laws as they may determine,
-ubject to the specific conditions of these articles. The Board shall con-
sist of one representative from each Society of one hundred members or
less, with one additional representative for each additional one hundred
members, or fraction thereof over fifty. The members of the Board shall
be appointed as each Society shall decide, and shall hold office until their
successors are chosen.
Sec. 2. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman and Secretary,
the latter of whom may or may not be himself a member of the Board.
ARTICLE III.
duties of officers.
Section i. The Chairman, in addition to his ordinary duties, shall
countersign all bills and vouchers before payment and present an annual
report of the transactions of the Board ; which report, together with a
synopsis of the other general transactions of the Board of interest to
members, shall be published in the Journal of the Association.
2
18 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Sec. 2. The Secretary shall be the active business agent of the Board
and shall be appointed and removed at its pleasure. He shall receive a
compensation for his services to be fixed from time to time by a two-
thirds vote. He shall receive and take care of all manuscript copy and
prepare it for the press, and attend to the forwarding of proof sheets
and the proper printing and mailing of the publications. He shall have
power, with the approval of any one member of the Board, to return
manuscript to the author for correction if in bad condition, illegible or
otherwise conspicuously deficient or unfit for publication. He shall certify
to the correctness of all bills before transmitting them to the Chairman
for counter-signature. He shall receive all fees and moneys paid to the
Association and hold the same under such rules as the Board shall
prescribe.
ARTICLE IV.
PUBLICATIONS.
Section i. Each Society shall decide for itself what papers and
transactions of its own it desires to have published, and shall forward
the same to the Secretary.
Sec. 2. Each Society shall notify the Secretary of the minimum
number of copies of the joint publications which it desires to receive, and
shall furnish a mailing-list for the same from time to time. Copies
ordered by any Society may be used as it shall see fit. Payments by each
Society shall in general be in proportion to the number of copies ordered,
subject to such modification of the same as the Board of Managers may
decide, by a two-thirds vote, to be more equitable. Assessments shall be
quarterly in advance, or otherwise, as directed by the Board.
Sec. 3. The publications of the Association shall be open to public
subscription and sale, and advertisements of an appropriate character shall
be received, under regulations to be fixed by the Board.
Sec. 4. The Board shall have authority to print with the joint publi-
cations such abstracts and translations from scientific and professional
journals and society transactions as may be deemed of general interest
and value.
ARTICLE V.
CONDITIONS OF PARTICIPATION.
Section i. Any Society of Engineers may become a member of this
Association by a majority vote of the Board of Managers, upon payment
to the Secretary of an entrance fee of fifty cents for each active member,
and certifying that these Articles of Association have been duly accepted
by it. Other technical organizations may be admitted by a two-thirds
vote of the Board, and payment and subscription as above.
Sec. 2. Any Society may withdraw from this Association at the end
of any fiscal year by giving three months' notice of such intention, and
shall then be entitled to its fair proportion of any surplus in the treasury,
or be responsible for its fair proportion of any deficit.
Sec. 3. Any Society may, at the pleasure of the Board, be excluded
from this Association for non-payment of dues after thirty days' notice
from the Secretary that such payment is due.
ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION. 19
ARTICLE VI.
AMENDMENTS.
These articles may be amended by a majority vote of the Board of
Managers, and subsequent approval by two-thirds of the participating
Societies.
ARTICLE VII.
TIME OF GOING INTO EFFECT.
These articles shall go into effect whenever they shall have been ratified
by three Societies, and members of the Board of Managers appointed. The
Board shall then proceed to organize, and the entrance fee of fifty cents
per member shall then become payable.
These articles were adopted by the several Societies upon the fol-
lowing dates :
Engineers' Club of St. Louis, January 5, 1881.
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland, January 8, 1881.
Boston Society of Civil Engineers, January 19, 1881.
Western Society of Engineers, April 5, 1881.
The Board of Managers was organized at a meeting held in Cleveland,
January 11. 1881.
The following Societies have since certified their acceptance of the
articles, and have become members of the Association of Engineering
Societies:
Engineers' Club of Minneapolis, July, 1884.
Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul, December, 1884.
Engineers' Club of Kansas City, January, 1887.
Montana Society of Civil Engineers, April, 1888.
Wisconsin Polytechnic Society, June, 1892.
Denver Society of Civil Engineers, January 24, 1895.
Association of Engineers of Virginia, February 1, 1895.
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast, March 1, 1895.
Detroit Engineering Society, January, 1897.
Engineers' Society of Western New York, January, 1898.
Louisiana Engineering Society, September 15, 1898.
Engineers' Club of Cincinnati, January, 1899.
Toledo Society of Engineers, January 11, 1904.
The Wisconsin Polytechnic Society withdrew from the Association in
March, 1894.
The Western Society of Engineers withdrew in December, 1895.
The Engineers' Club of Kansas City disbanded at the close of 1896.
The Denver Society of Civil Engineers and the Association of Engi-
neers of Virginia disbanded in 1898.
For the Engineers' Club of Cincinnati see footnote to Appendix F.
Secretary's Annual Report for 1902, vol. xxx. No. 1, page 57. January, 1903.
20 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Annual Report of the Chairman of the Hoard of Managers.
Boston, Mass., December 31, 1904.
To the Members of the Association of Engineering Societies.
Gentlemen: — In conformity with the Articles of Association, I
have the honor to present the annual report of the transactions of
the Board during the year 1904, together with the report of the
Secretary for the same period.
From the latter it appears that the gain in membership of the
Societies forming the Association has been larger during the past
year than during any of the previous ten years, and also that there
has been an increase in the number of pages in the Journal. About
one-half of the increase in membership is due to the admission of the
Toledo Society of Engineers in January.
It also appears from the Secretary's report that there has been
a very large increase in the cost of publishing the Journal. This
has been due to an increase of about 33 per cent, in the prices paid
for printing, an increase of 18.2 per cent, in the number of pages
in the Journal, and a large increase in the number of illustrations.
In consequence of this increased cost of publication it has been
found necessary to increase the assessment, for 1904, from $2 to 2.50
per member, and I regret to say that notwithstanding this increase
there has been a reduction in the assets of the Association. In con-
sidering the cost of the Journal to the members of the Association
it must be remembered that the Societies obtaining advertisements
for the Journal have received $823.50 for commissions on same,
and that this sum, if equally divided among the total membership,
would be equivalent to nearly $0.50 per member.
At the suggestion of the Secretary the question of codifying
and revising the rules of the Board of Managers has been carefully
considered, and it is expected that final action on this subject will
be taken by the Board within a few weeks.
I very much regret to inform the members of the resignation of
our Secretary, Mr. John C. Trautwine, Jr., which was received
September 14th, to take effect on January 1, 1905. During his
administration Mr. Trautwine has taken a very active interest
in the welfare of the Association, and for his efficient management
of the Journal and for his painstaking work as editor, the mem-
bers of the Association are very much indebted. Those who have
been associated with him have realized that much of the work which
he has done has been done for love of the Association and from
a personal desire to make it a success rather than for the monetary
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CHAIRMAN. 21
consideration, which did not adequately compensate for the time
which he has given to the work. Mr. Trautwine now feels that he
cannot longer devote sufficient time to the work without seriously
neglecting his own interests, and it does not seem fitting that he
should be expected to continue to sacrifice these for the welfare
of the Association. The selection of a new Secretary is now receiv-
ing the careful consideration of the Board, and Mr. Trautwine has
very kindly consented to continue in charge of the publication of
the Journal until his successor is elected.
In closing, I desire to express the hope that during the coming
year every member of the several Societies will join with the Board
of Managers in forwarding the interests of the Association, either
by the presentation of papers or by obtaining advertisements for
the Journal, so that we may make the year to come a prosperous
one.
Respectfully,
Dexter Brackett. Chairman.
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board ofManagers.
Philadelphia, December 31, 1904.
Mr. Dexter Bracket^ Chairman,
1 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.
Dear Sir : — I have the honor to present the following report upon the
operations of the Secretary's office during the year 1904, and upon the con-
dition of the affairs of the Association at the present time.
These data are concisely stated in the following statistical appendices :
A. Statement of receipts and expenditures during 1904.
B. Expenses and earnings for 1904 ("Profit and Loss").
C. Balance sheet, December 31, 1904.
D. Detailed statement of gross cost of Journal during 1904, by months.
E. Net cost of Journal during 1904.
F. Statement of material in Journal during 1904.
G. Comparison of the mail lists of the Journal at the close of 1903
and of 1904.
H. Comparison of conditions, 1894 to 1904, inclusive.
J. Comparison of conditions, 1902, 1903, 1904.
Prior to 1904 the chief book of the Association was the cash book, and
beyond this no attempt was made to conduct the accounts by double entry ;
but with the beginning of 1904 a double-entry system was introduced. This
has rendered advisable certain changes in the statement of the accounts, as
follows :
1. The appearance of the Association's stock of Journals and Index,
as assets.
2. The statement, in Appendix H, of net earnings from advertisements,
instead of net receipts, as heretofore.
3. The inclusion, under Cost of Illustrations, of the printers' charges
for paper, presswork and inserting; items which were formerly included with
the printers' bills, leaving (under the former system) only the preparation
of cuts and of lithographic stones, and paper and presswork on lithographic
insets, to be charged to Illustrations.
4. The omission of the cost of the December Journal from the state-
ment of Liabilities.
The notable feature of the year's business has been the effect of the ad-
vance of one-third in the printers' rates, which went into effect with the
issue of the Journal for September, 1903.
As a result of this, and as stated in my report for 1903, our cash balance
and our net assets, at the close of 1903, were slightly less than at the close
of 1902. The annual assessment of $2 per member, established in 1898, had
been maintained.
But the increased rates for printers' work, operative during the whole
of 1904, have so far reduced the Association's available assets as to render
it necessary to levy an assessment of $2.50 per member for the year, instead
of $2. This was done by making the fourth assessment $1 per member, the
three preceding quarterly assessments having been at the usual rate of 50
cents per member. The following diagram shows the rates of assessment
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
23
charged from 1895 to 1904 inclusive. It will be remembered that, during
1899, a special rebate of $1 per member was made from the rate of $2
charged in 1898, leaving the net rate, for 1899, only $1 per member.
rfg I8<j5 IS<?6 I8<?7 18 f 8 I8<?1 iqoo /qoi iqoz /<fo3 l<?o4
% %
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2. so
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2. So
,1.0 c
\ /8<?5 /8<?6 /8<?J I8<?8 /8<?<? iqoo /aoi ifoZ lfo3 iqo4
Rate of Annual Assessments, 1895-1904.
Appendix J shows an increase of over 49 per cent, in the gross cost
of the Journal and of nearly 56 per cent, in its net cost, as compared with
1903, and a virtual decrease (see footnote, Appendix J) of 42 per cent, in
net assets, notwithstanding the increase in assessment, above noted, without
which the net assets, at the close of 1904, would have been reduced, vir-
tually, to $557.81, a decrease of $1918.73, or 77.5 per cent.
The total membership of the Societies has increased by 155, or by nearly 9
per cent., nearly half of which is due to the admission of the Toledo Society
of Engineers, with 71 members, in January, 1904.
The St. Louis, Cleveland, Boston and Buffalo Societies have continued
procuring advertisements for the Association Journal, and our two youngest
members, the Louisiana and Toledo Societies, have made beginnings in this
direction. As a result, the earnings for 1904, from advertisements pro-
cured by the Societies, have reached $915, out of which the Societies retain
90 per cent., or $823.50.
The exchange of advertisements, between the Journal and a number
of the best engineering periodicals, has been continued.
During the year 1904, forty-nine papers were published in the Association
Journal. See Tables of Contents, printed in the issues for June and De-
cember, 1904.
Respectfully submitted,
John C. Trautwine, Jr., Secretary.
24 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
APPENDIX A.'
Statement of Receipts and Expenditures during 1904.
cash, 1904.
Dr.
To Cash Balance, January 1, 1904 $1,495.61
" Engineers' Club of St. Louis 466.25
" Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland 499-45
' Boston Society of Civil Engineers 1.526.36
" Engineers' Club of Minneapolis 143.00
' Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul 64.50
' Montana Society of Engineers 166.75
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 254.75
" Detroit Engineering Society 195-42
' Engineers' Society of Western New York 196.10
Louisiana Engineering Society 101.00
Toledo Society of Engineers 166.60
" Subscriptions (net) 53LI5
" Sales of Journal " 135.56
" " " Descriptive Index " 20.00
" Reprints 118.17
" " Sundries 12.70
' Advertisements* 278.00
Interest on Deposits 40.17
Postage stamps sold 1.22
$6,412.76
Cr.
By Patterson & White Co. (Printers) $4,074.10
" Illustrations 1,082.23
" Secretary's salary 600.00
' Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland 61.20
Advertising agents (commissions, etc.) 26.00
" Traveling expenses 3.25
Bookbinding 4. 10
Telegraph, telephone and messenger service 9.88
" Express charges 4.15
" Stationery 34. 1 1
" Postagef 47.81
" Subscriptions refunded 6.00
Journals bought 2.00
Cash Balance, December 31, 1904:
Provident Life and Trust Co $439.91
Checks on hand 15.50
Cash on hand 2.52
$5,954.83
457-93
$6,412.76
* Exclusive of receipts from advertisements obtained by the Societies in
the Association.
t Exclusive of postage paid by the printers for mailing Journal;
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25
APPENDIX B.
Earnings and Expenses for 1904.
("Profit and Loss.")
EXPENSES.
Printing and binding $3,140.82
Illustrations (a) 1,701.18
Mailing (&) 279.14
Secretary's salary 600.00
Advertising expenses (c) 29.80
Stationery 106.21
Postage (J) 106.54
Telegrams, etc 9.88
Express charges 6.50
Sundry expenses 21.50
Subscriptions for 1901 and earlier years, charged off as
uncollectible 210.00
Commission on advertisements received through the So-
cieties 823.50
Commission on sales of Journal 28.35
" Descriptive Index 5.00
" subscriptions 27.22
Sales of reprints {e) 12.13
$7,10777
EARNINGS.
Advertisements received through the Societies $915.00
secured by the Association 120.08
Sales of Journal 154-76
" Descriptive Index 27.25
" sundries 4.15
" exchanges 16.60
Assessments 4,300.50
Subscriptions 732-37
Interest 40.17
6310.88
Excess of expenses over earnings $796.89
NOTES.
(a) The amount ($1,701.18), charged for illustrations, includes the
printers' charges ($688.35), for paper, presswork and inserting, not included
in this item in previous reports.
(b) The amount ($279.14), charged for mailing, includes postage on the
Journal.
(c) The item of advertising expenses covers expenditures for adver-
tising the Association and its Journal.
(d) The amount ($106.54), charged for postage, is exclusive of postage
on the mailing of the Journal.
(e) The printers' rates for reprints, like those on the Journal proper,
have been sharply advanced, so much so that the management has hesitated
to make a corresponding advance in the prices charged, which formerly
brought a profit to the Association. Owing to this, the sale of reprints,
during 1904, shows a slight loss.
26 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
APPENDIX C.
Balance Sheet, December 31, 1904.
ASSETS.
Cash $457-93
Receivable from
Societies:
Engineers' Clnb of St. Louis $257.25
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland 216.30
Boston Society of Civil Engineers 94-45
Engineers' Club of Minneapolis 100.00
Montana Society of Engineers 158.00
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 200.15
Detroit Engineering Society 200.00
Engineers' Society of Western New York 70.00
Louisiana Engineering Society 1 14.50
Toledo Society of Engineers 4.35
1.415-00
Subscribers :
Subscriptions due :
Entered or renewed in 1904 $183.00
" 1903 " ^7-00
" 1902 (a) 3.00
213.00
Purchasers of Journal 7.90
" reprints (b) 15-75
" Descriptive Index 5.00
" sundries 3I-25
Advertisers (b) 220.66
Stock of Journal (c)- — 43,000 copies at 1 cent 430.00
Stock of Descriptive Index (c) —
Vol. 1, 24 copies, at $5.00 $120.00
" 2, 1 " " 5.00 500
" 3, 9 " " 7-50 67.50
192.50
$2,988.99
liabilities.
Patterson & White Co. (Printers):
For October Journal $317-54
November " (d) 31740
$634-94
reprints, stationery, etc 53-40
688.34
Net assets, December 31, 1904 $2,300.65
notes.
(a) Subscriptions for 1901 and earlier years, amounting to $210.00, have
been charged off to "Earnings and Expenses" as probably uncollectible.
Records of the balances due are kept, however, and efforts will be made to
collect them.
ANNUAL' REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27
(b) The amounts entered as receivable from sales of reprints and from
advertisements are exclusive of such amounts due from the Societies, which
are included in the amounts entered as "Receivable from the Societies."
(c) The Association's stocks of its own Journal and of the Descriptive
Index to Engineering Literature have not heretofore been included in state-
ments of assets. The stock of the Journal is estimated at about 43,000
copies, and, owing to the uncertainty of their sale, they are taken at the
nominal figure of 1 cent each — one-thirtieth of the published price, about
one-twentieth of the gross cost in 1904, and one-eighteenth of the net cost.
The Descriptive Index, on the contrary, sells steadily, and there is but a
small stock left. They are accordingly taken at their advertised prices,
which they readily bring.
(d) In previous reports, the cost of the December Journal has been
included as a liability; but, as it is not issued or billed until January of the
following year, it cannot properly be entered on the books for the current
year. It is therefore omitted from this report. The printers' bill for the
Journal for December, 1904, was $241.34.
Liabilities and Assets Account.
Dr.
1904
July 13th, error in balance January 1, 1904 (bill paid
during 1903) $1.50
December 31st, reduction in stock of Descriptive Index
during 1904 20.00
December 31st, expenses during 1904 (Appendix B) 7,107.77
balance 2,300.65
$9,429-92
Cr.
1904
January 1st, balance (net assets) $2,476.54
" stock of Journal (estimated) 400.00
Descriptive Index 212.50
December 31st, increase in stock of Journal during 1904
(estimated) 30.00
December 31st, earnings during 1904 (Appendix B) 6,310.88
$9.429-92
1905
January 1st, balance (net assets) $2,300.65
28
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29
APPENDIX E.
Net Cost of Journal, 1904.-
Gross cost, as per Appendix D $6,163.44
Add cost of reprints $202.26
Less sales of reprints 190. 13
12.13
Deduct earnings, as per Appendix B : $6,185.57
From subscriptions $732-37
Less commissions 27.22
$705.15
From sales of Journals $154.76
Less commissions 28.35
126.41
From sales of Descriptive Index $27.25
Less commissions 5.00
22.25
From sales of exchanges 16.60
" " sundries 4.15
From Association advertisements 120.08
From Society advertisements $915.00
Less commissions 823.50
91.50
From interest on deposits 40.17
1,126.31
Net cost of Journal, 1904:
January to December inclusive $5,059.26
Net cost per 100 copies, 1904 $17-72
" " " " " 1903 n-93
Increase, 1904, 48.5 per cent $5-79
APPENDIX F.
Statement of Material in Journal during 1904, by pages.
January
February ...
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November..
December ..
Papers.
28
30
53
63
79
63
23
48
125
7i
38
Totals I 681
Covers
Pro-
ceed-
ings.
83
Chair-
man's
Report,
etc.
36
36
Adver-
tise-
ments.
236
Indexes
to
Vols
List of
Mem-
bers.
Totals.
190
54
89
90
104
95
43
68
157
99
83
69
1141
Cuts.
178
Plates
and
Full-
Page
Cuts.
8
7
Total n£
30 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
APPENDIX G.
Comparison of the mailing lists of the Journal, at the close of 1903
and 1004, respectively :
1903.
Engineers' Club of St. Louis 225
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland 216
Boston Society of Civil Engineers 520
Engineers' Club of Minneapolis 86
Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul 21
Montana Society of Engineers 109
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast 154
Detroit Engineering Society 122
Engineers' Society of Western New York.... 68
Louisiana Engineering Society 67
Toledo Society of Engineers
In the Societies composing the Association. .1588 1743 195 40
Net I ncrease 155
Extra copies to Societies 41
Advertisers 34
Exchanges 131
Subscribers 222
Complimentary copies o
2016 2204 231 43
Besides this, many copies have been sold and specimen pages sent out,
and authors of papers have each received five copies of the Journal con-
taining them. In all, 2350 copies were printed of January and March-
September, inclusive, 2250 of February, and 2500 of October-December, in-
clusive.
In-
De-
1904.
crease.
crease.
209
16
216
595
75
98
12
21
102
7
171
17
139
17
5i
17
70
3
71
7i
56
15
31
141
10
232
10
1
I
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
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32
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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Journal.
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Members on Mail List.
December 31st.
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Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.
Association
OF
Engineering Societies.
Organized 1881. /
VOL. XXXIV. FEBRUARY, 1905. No. 2
This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or
for the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.
......
G SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y.
^
By F. A. Barbour, Member of the Boston Society of Civil E-ngksteers.
[Read before the Sanitary Section of the Society, January 4, 1905.*]
Saratoga Springs has long been noted as a summer resort.
The normal population of 12,000 is, by the advent of visitors,
rapidly increased, during the summer season, to 30,000, and in the
month of August to a maximum of 50,000 people. This so-called
village, therefore, presents unusual conditions for consideration in
the undertaking of any municipal improvement. Not only does the
annual increase in population take place, but a greater and dispro-
portionate demand for municipal conveniences results, making the
provision for water supply and sewerage necessarily out of all pro-
portion to the regular population. When, therefore, the problem
of sewage disposal presented itself for solution, it was not the condi-
tion of a village of 12,000 people which must determine the design,
but rather those of a city of 40,000.
The main portion of the village of Saratoga Springs rests on
the southeastern slope of the extremity of an easterly spur of the
Adirondacks, while the remaining portion of this village, separated
by the head of the valley of Village Brook, lies along the southerly
side of the valley and spreads out over the sandy plain which
stretches southward.
The natural drainage of the area occupied by Saratoga Springs
is directly into Village Brook, which, after following a very tortuous
course for about three miles, discharges into Lonely Lake. This
lake drains into Saratoga Lake, and this in turn through Fish Creek
into the Hudson River.
* Manuscript received February 8, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
4
34 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The sewerage system was originally constructed on the "com-
bined" plan. The main interceptor was a 36-inch single-ring brick
conduit, laid through the valley of Village Brook, in great part well
below the level of the stream bed. It ended near the Eureka Spring
— about 5000 feet below the thickly settled limits of the village —
and at this point the sewage was for some years discharged into the
brook.
Complaints from those living below the outlet led to the ap-
pointment, in 1882, of a commission to consider other means of
disposal, and somewhat later it wras decided to extend the main
sewer about five miles to Kayaderosseras Creek — a stream dis-
charging into Saratoga Lake. The interceptor to the original outlet
was 36 inches in diameter, but the extension was made only 24
inches in diameter. The capacity of the large conduit is 35 cubic
feet per second, while that of the 24-inch sewer is only 7 cubic
feet per second, the obvious intention in extending to the Kayader-
osseras being that only the dry-weather flow should be carried to
that point and that the excess during storms should overflow into
the Village Brook at the end of the 36-inch sewer. A small settling
tank was constructed at the head of the 24-inch sewer, either to
insure the self-cleansing of the sewer or else to prevent trouble from
floating matters in the Kayaderosseras.
Whatever the reason, the apparent result was a failure, and a
nuisance — judging from court decisions — was created at both
points, that at the Kayaderosseras from the regular discharge and
that at the Village Brook from the storm overflow and the handling
of the deposited solids at the time of their removal from the settling
tank. Twenty-three suits for damages were filed against the vil-
lage, nineteen of these being based on the results of the intermit-
tent storm discharge into the Village Brook and the remainder on
the effects of the dry-weather flow into the Kayaderosseras. The
complaints alleged the existence of offensive odors, that cattle would
not drink the water and that the meadow land was damaged by the
stranding of suspended solids. Four cases were carried to the
Court of Appeals, with results unfavorable to the defendant. The
total damages paid by the village of Saratoga Springs exceeded
$20,000.
It is interesting to note that, in the consideration of these cases,
the court followed closely the axiom that a riparian owner has a
right to the flow of the stream as "it is wont by nature" and a con-
tributor of 'pollution is liable for damages regardless of other pollu-
tion or the diluting effects of the stream. Overflow into Village
Brook could take place only when the sewage was diluted by sur-
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 35
face water so that the discharge exceeded. 5,000,000 gallons per day,
and only when the flow in the brook was increased to an extent
where the resulting mixture of brook water and sewage was within
the limits of the standard usually set for the prevention of a nui-
sance. These conditions were, however, of little value in the eyes
of the law, and the plaintiff gained a standing from the fact that
sewage had been discharged into the stream regardless of the subse-
quent dilution. The awards of the court covered damages to the
plaintiffs for a limited time only, on the assumption that, after a
certain date, Saratoga would install purification works.
In the early part of 1899 the pollution of Saratoga Lake was
brought to the notice of the State authorities, and, after an investi-
gation by the engineer of the Board of Health, it was concluded that
a nuisance was being created by the villages of Saratoga Springs
and Ballston Spa. On recommendation of the Board, Governor
Roosevelt, acting under the provision of Chapter 661 of the Laws
of 1893, ordered that these villages should, on or before April 1,
1900, put in disposal works for the sanitary treatment of the sew-
age. The time was subsequently extended for Saratoga. Ballston
Spa has not yet constructed a disposal plant, but is preparing to
do so.
In the summer of 1899 the writer was requested to make a pre-
liminary investigation of the sewage disposal problem with a view
to the adoption of intermittent filtration. Naturally one of the first
considerations was the amount of water used daily. This latter
was found to be so unreasonably high as to make the study of its
reduction a necessary preliminary to the economical undertaking
of sewage purification.
The water supply of Saratoga is taken from Loughberry Lake ;
the distribution is by direct pressure without storage, — two pumps,
one of 5,000,000 gallons and one of 8,000,000 gallons daily capacity,
being used. The distribution pipes are laid at very shallow depths,
sometimes within 3^ feet of the surface. This feature suggested a
large leakage from the mains and indicated the possibility of in-
creased stoppage by freezing in case the consumption and veloci-
ties were reduced.
In 1899 metering of the supply was recommended, and in the
following two years about 3000 meters were installed, at a cost of
about $25,000. It is impossible to accurately estimate the daily
consumption from the pump records because of the large percent-
age of slip and of water by-passed at times to the suction well. It
may be said, however, that in 1899 the daily per capita use of water
ranged from 225 gallons in the spring and fall to 400 gallons in
36 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
the winter months, and that in 1901 these figures were reduced to
about no gallons per capita in the months of normal temperature
and 130 gallons in the winter.
As a practical demonstration of the value of meters it is be-
lieved that no better instance exists than that above described.
That the use of water was not still further reduced is probably due
to large leakage from the mains and to the fact that the amount of
water on which the minimum payment is based was made too high.
The consumption has been lessened to the point where the 5,000,-
ooo-gallon pump can only be operated by turning high-pressure
steam direct into the low-pressure cylinder and the 8,000,000-gallon
pump used only at the time of maximum consumption and then
at a speed one-third of its normal rate.
In connection with the study of water consumption it seemed
advisable to ascertain if any large leaks in the mains had been
developed by movements due to the shallow depth. The town was
accordingly divided into four districts, and one district at a time
cut out by shutting the required gates, and the reduction in the
consumption between the hours of 12 midnight and 4 a.m. obtained
by using the pumps — which were examined and newly packed — as
a meter. This reduction in each case was practically proportionate
to the length of pipe isolated, and it was concluded that if leakage
from the mains existed it could only be remedied by a general re-
placing of the pipe system.
As has been already stated, the sewer was originally con-
structed on the "combined" system. Between the years 1898-1901,
$40,000 was expended in the construction of new surface water
drains, the old pipes being retained to serve as sanitary sewers.
In 1901 the local authorities felt that the necessary prelimi-
naries of reducing the water consumption and diverting the surface
water had been sufficiently accomplished to justify the construction
of the disposal plant.
In undertaking this work, it was necessary to ascertain the
amount of sewage to be treated, which, while indicated by the water
supply, might differ considerably because of leakage. This factor
was particularly important at Saratoga, in view of the seasonal
changes due to varying population. A weir was accordingly con-
structed in the settling tank at the end of the 36-inch main sewer
and readings taken by hook gauges, at fifteen-minute intervals, for
twenty-four hours on several different dates.
The following table, which it is believed worth while to here
insert, shows the results of these measurements :
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y.
37
Table Showing the
Hourly Rate of Discharge 01
Main Sewer on
Three Days.
May
1-2.
June 25
-26.
August io-ii.
Time.
Rate in
Thousand
Gallons per
24 Hours.
Percentage
of Daily
Average.
Rate in
Thousand
Gallons per
24 Hours.
Percentage
of Daily
Average.
Rate in
Thousand
Gallons per
24 Hours.
Percentage
of Daily
Average.
7- 8 A. M.
2408
97.O
2319
93-2
2606
96.O
8- 9 "
• 2520
IOI.O
2638
106.0
3037
1 12.0
9-10 "
• 2740
IIO.O
2856
1 14.0
3140
1 16.O
IO-II "
2649
106.0
2928
1 18.0
3230
1 19.0
11-12 "
2002
1 16.5
2902
1 1 7.0
.3265
I20.0
12- I P. M.
• 2778
1 12.0
2682
108.0
3252
I20.0
I- 2 "
2708
108.9
2580
103.0
3123
II5-0
2- 3 "
2804
1 13.0
2591
104.0
3IOO
1 14.O
3- 4 "
263O
106.0
2590
104.0
3043
II2.0
4- 5 "
26lO
105.0
2659
107.0
2960
IO9.O
5- 6 "
• 2497
100.0
2734
IIO.O
2791
IO3.O
6- 7 "
• 2472
100.0
2682
109.0
2932
I08.O
7- 8 "
. 2487
100.0
2643
106.0
3182
I16.O
8-9 "
2406
99.2
2640
104.0
3IOO
1 14.O
9-10 "
. 2441
98.5
2584
IOI.O
2931
107.0
IO-II "
• 2340
94-5
2512
99.0
2647
97-5
11-12 "
2299
92.5
2454.
95-0
2494
9I.O
12- i A. M.
2292
92.4
2364
90.0
2338
86.O
I- 2 "
. 2256
9i-5
2243
95.0
2517
87.5
2- 3 " •
• 2233
90.0
2061
90.0
2054
76.5
3- 4 "
2241
90.0
1983
83.0
1952
72.O
4- 5 "
2240
90.0
1995
79.0
1912
70.0
5-6 "
■ 2256
90.5
2002
80.0
1912
70.0
6- 7 "
2289
92.0
2137
80.0
20I5
74.0
Average. .
2482
2494
2724
The c
ischarge of the 36-
inch main
sewer, ,
is given
by these
gaugings, included a large amount of water from the different
springs, which, if a new main were constructed, would not have to
be handled. In order to know the future sewage to be treated, it
therefore became necessary to estimate the amount of these inflows,
and, in doing this, measurements of the flow in the main sewer at
frequent intervals of its length and of the flow in the contributory
laterals were made. In this work a form of Pitot tube, specially
devised, was found very convenient. It consisted merely of two
brass tubes, with elbows at the bottom, one pointing up-stream and
one at right angles — and glass gauges in their length — both tubes
firmly attached to a collar, which could be moved up and down on
a vertical standard and fastened at any elevation by a set screw.
Each brass tube had a stop-cock 'just above the elbow, these stop-
cocks being opened or closed by geared pinions through the move-
ment of a double-faced rack. By placing the standard on the invert
38 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
of the sewer and lowering the collar until the mouth of the tube was
at the proper level, then opening the stop-cocks and, after an inter-
val, closing", the liquid would be caught in the two tubes. The
apparatus could then be lifted up to read the difference of level in
the two gauges, and the velocity of flow so ascertained. Where
the depth of flow was very small, a partial vacuum could be created
in the tubes by a rubber bulb, and the liquid made to rise so as to
be readable in the glass gauges. The instrument was calibrated by
comparing the discharge as measured by it with that given by the
weir. It was found that the velocity as shown by the tube had to be
multiplied by a coefficient of 0.67 in order to give correct results.
It may be interesting to note that the velocity as given by floats in
a 36-inch sewer flowing one-third full had also to be corrected by
a coefficient of 0.75, in order to agree with the weir measurements.
The Pitot tube, of course, was merely a rough adaptation to the
work in hand, not accurate but sufficiently so for the gauging of
ordinary sewers. From the information gathered by the gaugings,
it was estimated that, if a new main sewer were constructed, the
flow of sewage would range from 1,500,000 to 1,700,000 gallons
per day — except during the summer months when it would increase
to a maximum of 2,500,000 gallons — on which quantities the design
of the disposal plant was based.
It was accordingly recommended that a new sewer be con-
structed through the valley, ranging in size from 15 to 24 inches in
• diameter ; the changes in size being made as shown to be necessary
by the inflow from the laterals measured by the Pitot tube. The
new main was planned on a flatter gradient than the old interceptor,
and reached the outskirts of the village at an elevation which almost
made it possible to dispose of the sewage by gravity.
The material which could be so utilized was not, however,
entirely suitable, and the choice lay between some form of high-rate
plant, reached by gravity or a low-pumping lift to very desirable
sands. Contact beds or streaming filters demand more constant and
expert attention than slow sand filtration, and, it was believed,
would be less capable of meeting the abnormal variation in the
quantity and quality of the sewage to be met with in Saratoga. The
material in the higher territory, as shown by numerous borings with
a sand auger, included 8 inches of loam, 2 feet of subsoil, and,
underneath this, sand averaging in "effective size" about 0.20 m.m.
with a coefficient of uniformity about 2 — satisfactory in all the
qualities necessary for filtration. Some of the borings were sunk
to a depth of 16 feet without reaching the limit of the sand or finding
water. The location was, from the standpoint of seclusion and
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 39
topography, almost ideal, and it was concluded to pump the sewage
and utilize this area. In sewage disposal work the most important
element is the obtaining of suitable materials at a reasonable dis-
tance from habitation, and it is frequently better to lift the sewage
than to attempt its purification under inadequate conditions.
With the present knowledge of the art, the adoption of high-rate
methods is, in the opinion of the writer, not justifiable where suit-
able sand can be obtained, even though the utilization of the latter
involves a moderate lift of the sewage. When power for electric
pumping is economically available, the cost of raising the sewage is
easily offset by the lower cost of maintenance and the greater safety
in operation of the more conservative plant.
The problem at Saratoga is notable for the seasonal variation in
the quantity of the sewage, for the extremely low temperature, which
averages about 20° F. during the months of January and February,
and because of the necessity for high-class maintenance of the plant,
particularly during the summer season.
Filtration of sewage demands consideration from two stand-
points— firstly, that of the surface maintenance, and secondly, of
the interior operations, whereby through chemical and bacterial
agencies purification is effected. The surface maintenance deter-
mines the cost of operation, decides whether a local nuisance will be
created and makes for the practical success or failure of the plant.
The suspended solids is the factor which clogs the surface of the
filters, and if this element of the sewage is so handled, either by
preliminary treatment as to prevent its application to the filters,
or by frequent removal from the surface of the filters, there is
relatively little difficulty in purifying the matter in solution. From
the standpoint of the municipality the problem is one of disposing
of the solids at the least possible cost in a way which will not create
a nuisance, rather than one of purifying the liquid portion of the
sewage. By this it is not intended that the design and material of
the filter is not important, but rather that, in taking up to-day the
planning of any disposal works, the factor which will most give
pause to the engineer is the method to be adopted for the treatment
of the solid matter.
One of the great merits of slow intermittent sand filtration
is that if good material, in sufficient depth, is found, an acceptable
effluent will almost surely be turned out under any conditions if the
surface is properly maintained. The opportunity to the sanitary
engineer for good work in the future lies in the evolution of a scheme
which will make possible the economical disposal of the solid
matters.
40 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Among' the various methods which have been already devel-
oped for the disposal of the suspended solids, the septic process is
perhaps best known. Its description is not here necessary. It has
been studied experimentally and used practically — sometimes with
success and sometimes with failure.
Originally exploited as the final solution of the sludge problem,
it is now known that generally more or less solids gradually ac-
cumulate in the tanks — in some places so rapidly as to make neces-
sary their removal at frequent intervals, in others only after a
period of several years.
Trouble in handling the stale sludge and difficulty in purifying
the septic effluent have been the usual grounds for disapproval of
this method. Ability to liquefy all the suspended matter is not,
however, necessary for its justification. If by its use the surface of
the filter during periods of low temperature can be kept clean, and if
such a portion of the solids can be dissolved as to effectively reduce
the cost of maintaining the plant, then in many cases the septic
process is justified.
It is riot necessary to create a nuisance, and if the effluent is
properly treated there will be no difficulty in effecting purification.
It has been a pronounced success in the personal experience of the
writer, but just why, as compared with other places where a partial
failure has resulted, is a difficult question to answer. The factors
essential to success have not yet been determined, and will prob-
ably only be evolved by a long process of elimination in experience.
In the belief that by its use the abnormal variation in the
amount of sewage would be somewhat equalized ; that the solids
could be withheld from the filters in the summer when the surface
appearance is particularly important, and in winter during the
period of low temperature ; that a large portion of the suspended
matter would be liquefied and the cost of maintenance thus reduced,
the septic process was adopted at Saratoga.
The plant as proposed, therefore, included the construction of
a new main sewer, the building of a small pump well and pumping
station, the lifting of the sewage 15 feet by centrifugal pumps
driven by electric motors, the laying of a force main 9000 feet in
length, the building of septic tanks of 1,000,000 gallons capacity
and the construction of 18 acres of sand filters.
There is nothing in the design or construction of the main
sewer worthy of mention.
The pumping plant comprises a well of 16,000 gallons capacity,
a small station built directly over the well, three 6-inch centrifugal
pumps placed in the well so as to be submerged by the sewage, three
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. V. 41
20 horse power electric motors directly connected by vertical shafts
with the pumps and automatic starting- and stopping apparatus,
which, through the action of floats, make and break the electric
circuit.
Septic tanks are preferably located at the disposal plant, and
this arrangement, where the sewage has to be lifted, makes continu-
ous pumping desirable. This is, moreover, dictated by economy in
the reduced storage required at the pumping station and in the
lessened diameter of force main.
Storage reservoirs for the night flow have in many cases been
constructed in order to avoid night attendance. Limiting the pump
run in this way to a few hours increases the necessary size of force
main, but has certain advantages in the efficiency of the distribution
of the sewage on the filters. This latter factor may, however, be
nullified by automatic dosing.
The greatest economy from the standpoint of pipe friction
is obtained by continuous pumping at a uniform rate throughout
the twenty-four hours. This, however, requires an equalizing reser-
voir larger than it is economical to attempt, and the obvious solu-
tion is the adoption of a rate of pumping equal to the inflow of the
gravity sewers. Such an arrangement can only be effected by
variable speed of the pumps or the division of the pumping capacity
into such a number of units that the work done at any time may be
approximately adjusted to the load line as represented by the
inflow.
Continuous pumping, in order to avoid night attendance, natu-
rally suggests automatic starting and stopping apparatus, and this,
in turn, the use of electric motors. Variable speed can be automati-
cally obtained with direct current, but not with alternating current
motors, and the use of the latter type, therefore, requires a reason-
able division of the total pumping capacity into units, one or more of
which will automatically come into operation as the inflow makes
necessary. This is what was done at Saratoga, where three pumps
were installed, each of 1000 gallons per minute capacity, when
pumping against the head developed at the time all three are in
operation. Two pumps are intended to take care of the maximum
inflow at any time, the third being in reserve.
The pump well, situated on East Avenue, is constructed of
concrete mixed 1 part cement, 3 parts sand and 5 parts crushed
stone. It is 24.5 feet by 12 feet in size, and the bottom of the well i?
10 feet below the invert of the main sewer. The sewage delivered
by the interceptor passes through a screen and falls into a narrow
chamber, from which it flows into one or more of the three pump pits
42 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
into which the well is divided, and an) one of which may be shut
off by closing a gate.
The screen is a counterbalanced cage, which is raised and low-
ered by a chain and sprocket wheel actuating a worm gear. The
cage when full is lifted several feet above the ground floor, and
the front drops back so as to permit the raking of the screenings
directly into a wheelbarrow. A toothed comb lifts as the screen is
raised and serves to temporarily prevent large solids reaching the
pump. The screen bars are circular, f inch in diameter and spaced
if inches on centers. This was found to be not close enough for
the operation of 6-inch centrifugal pumps of the usual type, and a
screen of closer mesh was subsequently placed inside the cage.
Pumps with larger clearance between the impeller casing and volute
will take larger solids, but the efficiency is lower than that of the
usual type. From more recent work it has been found that square
are better than round bars for fine screens, and a cage of f-inch bars,
spaced i-j inches on centers, is about right for small pumps. Ex-
perience has also proved that spur gearing, with a ratchet to hold
the cage at any desired level, is better than worm gearing for the
hoist.
The pumping station is a small building, 20 by 25 feet inside
measurements, with a rear projection, 8 by 10 feet in size, for the
working of the screen hoist. The building is placed directly over the
storage well, but there is no connection between the motor room
and the well, entrance to the latter being obtained only through the
screen room.
The station is constructed of Scotch fire-brick, with roof of
red Ludowici tile, and is in no way a detriment to surrounding
property or suggestive of the reason for its existence.
A 6-inch centrifugal pump is placed in each pump pit — sup-
ported by I-beams at an elevation about 30 inches above the floor of
the well. Each pump is directly connected by vertical shafting,
which is guided by two sets of I-beams, with the motor in the room
above. A slip coupling is placed in each shaft just below the floor,
the weight of the motor and its shaft being carried by the motor
bearing and that of the pump shaft and the thrust of impeller by a
thrust bearing set on the higher pair of I-beams. The use of the
slip coupling is apparently essential, as it is difficult to so otherwise
adjust the motor and thrust bearing that each will do its share of
the work. It also permits the close adjustment of the impeller to
bottom of pump casing, necessary to prevent clogging of the pump
by small rags winding around the shaft. The thrust bearing is
important in the design of vertical pumping connections, and one
Pumping Station.
Interior View of Pumping Station.
Septic Tank, Showing Placing of Floor.
Septic Tank, Showing Concrete Piers.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y.
43
of the best types is that used in vertical. motors in which the oil is
continuously and automatically circulated by centrifugal force.
With an alternating current of a given frequency the speed of
the motor can be regulated onlv within the choice of the number of
^T^S
vj.vw.-<-
Pump
No.
EI.S54.
EI.E48.0
-Tl
■ f
■ }
Pump
El
E5?-0
^
.;•'
~P
Pump Well
No. 3.
_E[P5E0__
Pump Stops
Section Through Sewage Pumping Station, Showing Electrically-
driven Centrifugal Pumps.*
poles. For close adaptation of the discharge of the pumps it is,
therefore, necessary to vary the diameter of impeller and the result-
ing circumferential velocity. The slip of the motor must be taken
into account and allowance made for the fact that in many cases
* Cut loaned by Engineering Neivs.
44 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
generators are not run up to speed. The obtaining of the desired
number of revolutions is important because a small reduction in the
speed of centrifugal pumps, operating against a certain head, makes
a relatively large reduction in the discharge.
The motors at Saratoga are vertical six-pole 20 horse-power in-
duction motors with primary stator, using a three-phase current of
fort}- cycles frequency. The power is obtained from the Hudson
River Power Company, and is developed by a dam on the Hudson
River at Spier's Falls. The current is delivered at a primary pres-
sure of 2300 volts and stepped down to 220 volts by transformers
placed on the outside of back wall of pumping station.
The nominal speed is 800 revolutions per minute, but the actual
speed averages from 765 to 785 revolutions. Each pump has an
8-inch suction and 8-inch discharge pipe, a check and straightway
valve being placed in each branch discharge. A valve was also
placed in the short length of suction pipe below each pump, with
the idea that when the inflow of sewage was less than the capacity
of one pump the suction might be throttled. It is claimed that a
centrifugal pump so throttled, in view of decreased force-main
friction, will operate with greater efficiency than when running with
full capacity. This has, however, not yet been tried at Saratoga.
In the corner of each pump pit a 15-inch copper ball is floated
in a galvanized sheet-iron pipe. From the floats, chains, guided by
pulleys, lead to automatic switches in the motor room above. The
floats are counterweighted, and as they rise the counterweights
pull down a lever to a horizontal position, from which a spring
quickly completes the movement of the switch and starts the motor.
As the sewage is lowered, a reverse action of the float and switch
takes place, and, at a certain level of the sewage in the well, the
motor is stopped. The floats are so arranged that No. 1 motor
starts when the sewage reaches elevation 254, No. 2 at elevation
256 and No. 3, which is intended to be in reserve, at elevation 258.
In shutting down, the motor, which starts last, stops first. In this
way the pumping capacity, at any time in use, is as nearly adapted
to the inflow as is practically possible with this type of plant. The
units are interchangeable in their operation, and the scheme is, in
the opinion of the writer, better than the adoption of pumping
units of different capacities.
The automatic starting and stopping apparatus is entirely
satisfactory in its operation — although the same danger exists in
this as in all automatic apparatus, that it will be altogether
neglected. There are certain parts of the plant which require more
or less attention at times, among these being the switches which,
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 45
although submerged in oil, sometimes spark and burn so as to make
an imperfect contact. In this way the circuit in two phases and
not in the third may be completed, thus burning out the motors.
This possibility can be avoided by the use of time-limit relays which,
on the motor failing to start or on the pump becoming plugged by
solid matters, automatically throw out a switch and shut off the cur-
rent. These relays were installed at Saratoga after the danger
existing without them had been learned by experience.
A test of the pumps showed a discharge of about 1575 gallons
per minute for each pump running alone against a total head of
27.75 feet> w^h 775 revolutions per minute, and a discharge of 1180
• gallons per minute for each pump when two pumps were running
against a total head of 37.75 feet, and with a speed of 784 revolu-
tions per minute. The average combined efficiency of pumps and
motors is about 35 per cent. The pumping plant was installed by
R. D. Wood & Co., the total cost being $5400. The building cost
$2000 and the pump well about $2000.
The force main is 16 inches in diameter and 8835 feet long. It
is laid level or with an ascending grade to a point about 4400 feet
from the station, where a 4-inch air vent rising above the hydraulic
gradient is placed. From this point it drops to a water course, where
there is a blow-off, and then rises continuously to the septic tanks. It
can be drained either to the pumping station or the blow-off. Heavy
cuttings were opened in railroad fashion to a depth 4.5 feet above
the top of the pipe. Bottom of cuttings and top of embankment are
6 feet in width.
The septic tanks have a total capacity of 1,000,000 gallons,
divided into four units, each 91.5 feet long by 51.5 feet wide. High
water is at elevation 272. The depth of sewage at inlet end is 7.75
feet and at outlet end 8.25 feet.
The entire structure is built of Portland cement concrete. The
outside walls are 2 feet thick at the springing line of arches, vertical
on the inside and with a batter of about 1^ inches per foot on the
outside. The division walls are 2 feet thick at the springing line
and 3 feet thick at the level of the underside of floor. The piers are
18 inches square, the head being enlarged to 22 inches and the foot-
ing to 30 inches.
The roof is of elliptical groined arch construction, the span
being 11 feet 6 inches and the rise 2 feet 6 inches. The thickness
at crown is 6 inches and the plane of extrados is depressed 9 inches
over the piers. This depression is drained by a 2-inch pipe through
the roof into the tanks.
46 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The floor is of inverted spherical groined arch construction,
6 inches thick at the center and 12 inches thick at the piers.
The force main ends in a chamber, from which a pipe leads
across the inlet ends of the tanks. This pipe is carried by a con-
crete bracket reinforced by old railroad iron. Inlet chambers permit
the shutting off of one or more tanks as desired. A by-pass pipe
leads from the chamber at end of force main around the tanks, so
that raw sewage can be applied directly to the beds. Inside of the
tanks the inlet pipe is split and carried across the end of tank on a
concrete bracket, four openings being provided for the discharge of
the sewage at an elevation 3.5 feet below the high- water line.
The septic effluent escapes from the tanks through two hori-
zontal rows of 2-inch pipe — ninety-six in all, set at an elevation
about 3^ feet below high-water line — into a narrow chamber extend-
ing the entire width of tank, from which it flows over a weir into
the outlet chambers and thence to beds.
At the junction of the narrow transverse chambers a weir gate
is placed, through which the effluent can be turned into the adjacent
tank for storage in case it is the desire to apply the liquid to the
beds during only the day hours in time of extremely low tempera-
ture. Opportunity to measure the quantity passing through each
tank is afforded by the outlet weir and to thus properly regulate
the flow by the inlet gate.
A 24-inch sludge gate permits the emptying of the sludge onto
the sludge beds located directly in front of the tanks, and 12-inch
gates at a higher elevation make it possible to draw off the clear
liquid between the scum and deposit and apply it to any bed pre-
vious to the discharge of the sludge. All gate stems are carried
through the roof in special nuts which contain the screw, in this
way protecting the working surfaces from corrosion by the sewage.
Six openings, 3 feet in diameter, are placed in the roof of each tank.
The walls were first constructed and the floor afterward laid
by the usual method of placing the alternate quarter groins with
wooden templates on the diagonals and then filling in between the
concrete already laid. The side forms were built of 2 x 4 vertical
studding spaced 18 inches on centers and i-inch boarding, in sec-
tions 16 feet long.
Centers for the roof were provided for two tanks and used
twice. The ribs were separately erected each time, no attempt
being made to move the centers in sections.
All concrete was mixed by hand, two mixing-boards being kept
in operation — thus making the work of placing practically continu-
ous. The sand and cement were mixed dry, then water added, the
Septic Tank, Looking Toward Inlet End.
Septic Tanks, Looking Toward Outlet End.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 4:
mortar well mixed, and then the stone dumped into the mixing-
boards from wheelbarrows and the concrete turned over twice. A
wet mixture was insisted upon, and the resulting surfaces turned
out smooth and vitrified in appearance. Relatively little tamping
was done.
The price of $2.50 per cubic yard paid for the concrete did not
include the cost of the crushed stone, which was furnished by the
local authorities, or the cement, for which the contractor was paid
separately by the barrel.
The stone furnished was larger and more uniform in size of
particle than was desirable and the percentage of voids greater than
usual. A mixture of 1 part cement, 2^ or 3 parts sand and 5 parts
stone, depending on the percentage of voids in sand and stone, was
used. The only difference in roof and walls was a more careful
selection of stone of smaller size for the roof. In this part of the
work an endeavor was made to limit the stone to 1^ inches in
diameter; in the sides and floors stone up to 2\ inches was used.
The cement used per yard of concrete slightly exceeded 1.25 barrels
— an amount higher than should have been the case.
The forms and centering were not handled in the most economi-
cal way by the contractor, from whose pay sheets it appears that
this part of the work cost over $1.50' per cubic yard. This includes
all form work for chambers, outlets, piers, brackets, roof, walls and ■
floor — much of which was complicated and for thin work — and,
while unquestionably this cost is higher than necessary, it is to be
remembered that the use of concrete throughout in such structures
involves a high cost for forms.
The cost of mixing and placing concrete was about 85 cents per
cubic yard, and the total cost, figuring stone at $1.25 per cubic yard,
amounted to about $7 per cubic yard.
The effluent of the septic process is devoid of oxygen, and be-
fore attempting its purification aeration, either incidental or by par-
ticular arrangement, should be effected. At Saratoga the effluent
is passed over an aerator of perforated sheet-iron plates, hung in
three layers around a central riser pipe. The liquid flows from the
septic tanks in a 16-inch cast-iron pipe, from which by a T branch
it rises through the central pipe of aerator and flows over the
plates in a thin sheet.
The aerator is set in a circular well of concrete adjoining the
dosing tank. By opening a gate at the end of the 16-inch pipe, the
liquid can be admitted directly to the dosing tank without aeration.
The following results of the dissolved oxygen test may be inter-
esting:
48 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
I'er Cent, of
Saturation.
Sewage entering tanks 4.3
Effluent before aeration 0.0
Effluent immediately after aeration 70.4
Effluent as applied to filters 40.4
These figures indicate the avidity of the liquid for oxygen, and
while it may be difficult to demonstrate the actual value of this
special aeration, it is reasonable to believe that otherwise the avail-
able oxygen in the beds would be used up preliminary to the com-
mencement of nitrification. At all events, there has been no diffi-
culty at Saratoga in effecting nitrification of the septic effluent.
The effluent after passing over the aerator falls into the inclos-
ing circular concrete chamber and then flows into an adjacent dos-
ing tank. The combined capacity of the aerator chamber and tank
is 26,000 gallons, and at the average rate of inflow, the dose, which
is intermittently discharged on the beds, is about 35,000 gallons.
The dosing tank is octagonal in plan, to better fit the intersection of
the embankments, with walls 12 inches thick and roof of I-beams
and 6-inch concrete slab, reinforced by expanded metal.
The continuous flow into this tank is made intermittent by the
use of an 18-inch Miller siphon. The lower leg of this siphon ends
in a cylinder 24 inches in diameter, with four 12-inch circular open-
ings in the side, 900 apart. These openings are enlarged to 24
inches in diameter and connect with four lines of distribution pipes
leading to the filters. Inside the four-way cylinder another cylinder
with one opening is made to revolve by the rise of a float. This float
carries a rack which, through gearing, transmits the motion to the
vertical shaft of the inside cylinder or revolving gate in such a way
that for each rise of the float the cylinder turns one-quarter of a
revolution, registering in turn with each of the four openings of the
outer cylinder.
The siphon, although designed to discharge at a certain depth
of water, is operated mechanically by the action of a small float,
which opens a valve and permits the air under compression to
escape. This float can be set at any height and the size of dose thus
changed as may be desired.
The connection of float with cylinder is made through a four-
pawl ratchet, which, while serving to turn the cylinder on the upward
motion of the float, permits the float to descend without causing a
reverse movement of the cylinder. The apparatus is simple and
positive in its operation, and makes possible the application of the
sewage regularly during the day and night in doses of the desired
amount with no attendance other than occasional oiling.
The siphon discharges at a rate varying from 10 cubic feet per
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 49
second at the beginning of its operation to 7.5 cnbic feet at the end.
The actual velocity in this siphon is equal to the theoretical velocity
for the head between the inner and outer surfaces of water multi-
plied by a coefficient of 0.65.
The revolving cylinder can be turned by hand and the sewage
can be flowed directly into this cylinder without passing through
the siphon, in this way cutting out the dosing tank and making the
discharge continuous.
The dose of 35,000 gallons, applied at a rate of 8 cubic feet
per second, is well distributed over the beds 1 acre in area with a
sand 0.20 m.m. "effective size." It is large enough in all but extreme
conditions of temperature, when a greater dose is desirable in order
to keep the beds open.
The rate of discharge is an important factor in successful dis-
tribution. At Saratoga the main pipes, outlets and carriers are all
designed to carry 8 cubic feet per second. The distribution pipes
are generally 24 inches in diameter, laid in trenches excavated after
the embankments had been raised to an elevation 2\ feet above the
grade of the pipe. Gate chambers of 8-inch brickwork and 4-inch
concrete slab covers are placed opposite the center of the beds and
contain the gates necessary to deflect the sewage to any bed desired.
The outlet pipes are 15 inches in diameter and protected at the
outer ends by concrete abutments. From these abutments a carrier
extends 180 feet across the bed. Its width is decreased from 5 feet
at the embankment to 1 foot at the far end by abrupt reductions
of 6 inches on each side at four points, in this way slicing off the
sewage into ten parts of practically equal amount. By reducing the
width a uniform depth of flow is maintained and a self-cleansing
velocity made possible. Adjustable wooden gates at the outlets
serve to regulate the discharge if it is desired to throw unequal
quantities on different parts of the beds. The bottom of the carriers
is of Portland cement concrete mixed 1:3:5, 6 inches thick, laid in
sections of about 8 feet in length, with tarred paper between each
section to prevent temperature cracking at random points. Iron
bars were set in the concrete extending across the entire width of
the carrier and turned up at the ends to serve as supports for the
2-inch plank sides. These carriers, which are the same as have been
used at a number of other places, are an entire success in effecting
the uniform distribution of the sewage over the beds. In the opinion
of the writer, there is no other feature in sewage filtration work so
important as the dosing of the filters at such a rate, in such quanti-
ties and in such a way as to quickly and evenly spread the sewage
over the entire bed.
50 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The field is divided into twenty beds — eighteen of these about
I acre in area, the other two somewhat smaller. The problem in
the grading of filter beds is to so handle the work as to get the loam
and subsoil — which it is usually necessary to remove — in their final
positions at one handling. Good management in this determines
the cost of the earthwork, and to put a premium on such manage-
ment it is the custom of the writer to specify that there shall be
no second payment for material handled a second time.
The embankments were constructed of the yellow subsoil, with
about 9 inches of loam on the outer surface. Great care was taken
in the selection of the sand used in making fills in the beds, so that
material of widely varying size of grain did not abruptly join.
Wheel scrapers, wheelbarrows and two-horse slatted bottom
wagons were used in the grading. The actual cost to the con-
tractor was about 17 cents per cubic yard — 5 cents of which is
chargeable to the trimming up and sandpapering of surfaces.
As has been already stated, the sand was found to extend to an
unknown depth, and the water table was about 16 feet below the
original surface. It was therefore decided to put in only one line
of underdrains in each bed, at a depth of about 6.5 feet, and a line
of 10- to 15-inch drain, at a depth of 11 feet, with which the smaller
drains might connect. In the main drain manholes were placed at
the junction of the laterals, and at the ends of all drains, which were
turned up and carried above the surface of the beds, air vents were
provided. In this way circulation of air can take place, it is believed
with beneficial effect in the reduced accumulation of carbonic acid
gas in the body of the filters. At Brockton, where no air vents
w<ere provided, the collection of this gas is so pronounced that a
lighted lantern is extinguished in the manholes 2 feet below the
surface. The introduction of manholes at drain intersections is
important in the opportunity afforded of cleaning the pipes by sewer
rods, should organisms develop, as sometimes happens to an extent
which will almost clog the pipes. The small number of underdrains
was criticised in the original plans, but it has been found that not
one-quarter of the filtrate finds an outlet through these pipes, the
greater part running off through the ground without appreciably
raising the water table.
The total cost of the work done at Saratoga amounted to about
$200,000 — $65,000 of which was expended in metering the water
supply and in the separation of the surface water drains. The work
was let in one contract, and it is impossible without considerable
labor to accurately state the separate cost of the different parts. In
Filter Beds, Looking Southwest from Septic Tanks.
View of Filter Bed in Winter.
<
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 51
round figures the pumping plant cost $11,000; the force main,
$24,500; the septic tanks, $15,500, and the disposal field, $48,000.
The plant was placed in commission in July, 1903 — the writer
having charge of its operation until September, 1904. Systematic
analyses of the sewage, septic effluent and filtrate were made during
this time and gaugings of the scum and deposit in the tanks taken
with a Fowler sludge gauge once each week.
The quantity of sewage varies with the season and the rainfall,
and ranges from 1,250,000 gallons to double this amount. It is
relatively weak except in the months of July and August, the aver-
age free ammonias equaling 2.0 parts ; the total albuminoid ammo-
nias, 0.40 parts; the oxygen consumed, 5.0 parts, and the suspended
solids, 20.0 parts per 100,000. The samples from which these figures
were derived, while not. taken as frequently as is desirable for an
exact statement of the work done, were in every case collected in
small portions at intervals throughout the day and well express the
conditions at the time of collection.
Since the beginning of operation all the sewage has been passed
through three of the tanks, the fourth never having been filled.
The time of retention in the tanks has varied from ten to fifteen
hours, the shorter period being in the month of August, when the
sewage is strongest, but also when the temperature is highest and
the bacterial activity greatest. About 65 per cent, of the suspended
solids have been removed by the septic treatment and the remainder
so finely comminuted and decomposed as to nullify its capacity for
forming deposits on the filters. The tanks have never been emptied
and no solid matter has been taken from them. Not more than five
tons of scrapings have been removed from the surface of the filters,
and this only because of an excessive zeal for cleanliness.
At the present time there is 10 per cent, less solid matter in the
tanks than there was one year ago, and it would seem as if the
operation might extend indefinitely without drawing off any sludge.
Septic treatment was begun at the time of maximum population, the
result being a rapid accumulation of solids during the first two
months. The action was hardly established before cold weather set
in and the most severe winter in the memory of Saratoga encoun-
tered. The average of the lowest daily temperature for the three
months of December, January and February was 9.3 degrees above
zero; in February it was 4.8 degrees above zero. There were
twenty-eight days of zero weather and a minimum of 32 degrees
below zero was recorded. These figures are interesting as an indica-
tion of the temperatures at which sand filters can be successfully
operated.
52 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The scum in the tanks became frozen to a depth of several
inches under the masonry roof and 18 inches of earth covering.
It would seem as though open tanks in such conditions would hardly
be feasible. Judging from the results at Saratoga, the process of
anaerobic liquefaction is perhaps more intimately dependent on tem-
perature than is the process of nitrification. The depth of scum and
deposit continuously increased up to April, when about 44 per cent,
of the entire volume of the tank was occupied by these accumula-
tions, as measured by the Fowler gauge. At this date the tempera-
ture of the liquid in the tanks had fallen to 41 ° F.
The following figures show the character of the scum and de-
posit as measured by the gauge :
Deposit
Scum. Per Cent.
Moisture 86.5 94.0
Volatile matter 10.0 4.5
Mineral residue 3.5 1.5
In May the temperature of the liquid in the tanks had increased
to 500 F. and the scum and deposit had reduced to 35.7 per cent, of
the volume of the tank. In June the corresponding figures were
590 and 24.5 per cent. In July, 65 ° and 23.4 per cent. In August,
when the sewage reached its maximum temperature of 70 °, the per-
centage of volume occupied by the scum and deposit had fallen to
21.4 per cent. Since then the temperature has lowered, and the
accumulated solids on January 1, 1905, occupied about 25 per cent,
of the tank volume.
About 1,000,000 pounds of dry solid matter have entered the
tanks since the beginning of operation, and 350,000 pounds of these
solids have passed out in the effluent. This latter portion has been
so decomposed that no visible deposit in amount large enough to
attempt its removal has appeared on the beds.
The specific gravity of the scum averages about 0.975, an(^ °f the
deposit, 1.025. On January 1, 1905, about 200,000 pounds of dry
solid matter remained in the tanks, of which 25,000 pounds was in
the form of deposit and the balance in the floating scum. It there-
fore appears that 450,000 pounds of solid matters which have entered
the tanks have altogether disappeared by liquefaction. The sewage
is strictly domestic and probably the most favorable for successful
treatment by this method.
The purification of the septic effluent has varied from 99.3 per
cent, in December, 1903, to 79 per cent, in March, 1904, on the
basis of the free ammonias in the raw sewage and the filtrate. The
nitrates have ranged from 0.5 to 2.5 parts per 100,000. In mid-
summer twelve beds are used daily, the gates being changed twice ;
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SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 53
during the remainder of the year eight beds are used daily, one
shift of the gates being necessary. The average daily amount of
sewage per bed in use is about 140,000 gallons, applied in four doses.
The entire field is kept in commission and the beds used alternately,
so that the average rate per day for the field is about 60,000 gallons
per acre. In the opinion of the writer, double this rate could be
maintained with equally good results. A recording apparatus on
the dosing machine indicates the number "of doses applied.
The cost of maintaining the disposal field has averaged about
$140 per month, of which two-thirds is expended in trimming em-
bankments, weeding drives and other work independent of the main-
tenance of the bed surfaces. The cost of power for pumping has
averaged about $60 per month. The engineer of the waterworks
station visits the sewage pumping plant once or twice each day, and
the screenings, which amount to about 170 pounds per day in all
months except August, when they increased to 250 pounds, have
to be removed several times weekly. Allowing $50 per month for
this attendance, the total cost of pumping equals about $1300 per
year, and the entire cost of operating the disposal plant, including
the lifting of the sewage and its purification, amounts to about $3000
per year.
Mr. Geo. H. Wetherbee was the resident engineer in charge
of construction. The disposal plant was built by Seymour & Newell,
as a sub-contract from A. M. Banker, and all work was done under
the authority of the Sewer, Water and Street Commission, of which
Dr. D. C. Moriarta is chairman.
DISCUSSION.
Q. (By Mr. Geo. A. Carpenter). — I would like to ask Mr.
Barbour how often samples are taken for analysis?
A. Once in two weeks.
Q. Is there any way of telling whether or not that deposit in
the septic tank, when you reduce the accumulation in the tanks from
40 to 20 per cent., did not flow out in the effluent ?
A. Only as shown by the analysis of effluent and the condition
of surface of beds. We have not removed anything from the beds.
Q. Of course, if it flowed out, it would flow out as finely
divided matter?
A. Yes ; our analyses of the septic matter show that 35 per
cent, of the solids passed out in the effluent.
Q. (By Mr. F. L. Fuller).— I would like to ask Mr. Bar-
bour, in making that depression over the top of the piers, if a form
was used?
54 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
A. No form for the upper surface was used, except a tem-
plate.
Q. And that was put on as the concrete was put in?
A. Yes.
Q. I do not think you showed it in the views.
A. One view showed the depression over the piers.
Q. Do I understand that there was a frame put in to give
shape to that depression ?
A. No permanent frame; only a template used.
Q. Was there any trouble, owing to the thinness of the con-
crete of that shape, with that depression filling up?
A. No; there was no tendency to crawl; the slope was not
steep enough.
Q. (Mr. Carpenter). — Did the concrete of the carriers lay
directly on the sand?
A. Yes.
Q. And you have had no trouble from frost ?
A. We have had no trouble yet, that I know of.
O. I think, Mr. Barbour, you spoke about the ice forming
in the septic tank, did you not, in the coldest weather?
A. I said that the scum was frozen to a depth of 4 inches in
the coldest weather.
O. How much covering ?
A. The groined arch roof and 18 inches of earth.
0. It does not seem that it ought to freeze with that covering.
A. Well, that was a remarkable winter.
Q. (A Member). — What is the depth of the sewage as ap-
plied to the bed?
A. The dose is 35,000 gallons, which would be equivalent to
about an inch in depth.
O. How soon does another dose go on?
A. This depends entirely on the amount flowing at the time.
The sewage is carried around the cycle of four beds, one bed after
another receiving its dose — with an interval of about forty minutes
at the time of average flow.
Q. That is, each bed would get a dose once in forty minutes ?
A. I am not exactly sure of these figures, but they are practi-
cally right.
Q. (Mr. R.S.Weston). — Did any disintegrated water-closet
paper pass the septic tank?
A. None that was apparent.
Q. (By Mr. Freeman C. Coffin). — Did you state, Mr. Bar-
bour, the rate at which the beds worked at anv time ?
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 55
A. The average daily amount of sewage has been about 1,300,-
000 gallons, and eight beds are used each day, except in the summer
months, when twelve are used. Therefore the daily rate per bed
would be about 150,000 gallons. The beds in use are changed the
next day, and the average rate for the field is a little below 75,000
gallons per day per acre.
Q. Have you been able to determine whether there is a large
gain in the rate of purification by the use of the septic tank?
A. It is hardly possible in a practical plant like this to prove
it. The only thing we have decided in our mind is that in winter
the time of absorption remains lower ; it is easier to maintain the
beds in winter if the solids are taken out of the sewage, and in
summer the beds remain cleaner. It is a question of reducing the
cost of maintaining the beds. I would not figure that a septic
effluent can be purified at a higher rate than sewage from which the
same percentage of solids has been removed.
Q. (By Mr. Hastings). — What has been done with the
screenings ?
A. They have been buried in trenches so far.
Q. Another question. When you started you spoke of a suit
for damages for contaminating the brook, and, as I understood you
to say, the case was based on a final discontinuance of the nuisance.
How long did the court award damages — how long did they con-
sider the nuisance would be continued?
A. The court gave the plaintiffs so much money for past
damages and so much a year from the time of the trial.
Q. So much a year so long as the nuisance lasted ?
A. Yes.
O. (By Mr. Carpenter). — I want to ask Mr. Barbour how
the distribution on the beds is accomplished. I notice four branches
from the siphon chamber. Do you distribute to more than one bed
from one chamber ?
A. No; each branch from the dosing apparatus leads down an
embankment, and the entire flow goes to one bed. There are four
lines leading from the distributing apparatus.
0. And how long are these four beds flowed before a change
is made in the gates?
A. At this time of year the gates are shifted twice each day —
in summer three times.
O. The gates are changed twice a day?
A. Yes.
Q. Is there any difficulty in keeping a tight gate in that auto-
matic apparatus?
56 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
A. It leaks slightly.
Q. And causes no trouble in winter on the beds?
A. No ; the leakage is all taken up in the distributing pipes ; it
is never noticed on the beds.
Q. (By Mr. Fuller). — I would like to ask Mr. Barbour
about those piers that support the roof. I think they were enlarged.,
but I did not notice exactly how that was done in regard to the
centering. You showed one view that showed the pier heads — was
the enlargement made below the centering?
A. It was made below the springing line, the pier being in-
creased from 1 8 inches square to 2.2 inches inches square at the
springing line.
Mr. Coffin. — Speaking of the construction of a roof of this
kind, the last two or three cases that I have had in building a roof of
that description, I have found quite an advantage in making a neck
around the heads of the piers, upon which the centering is rested,
and in that way avoid all strutting from the bottom of the reservoir,
and I have found it a saving in expense not having the struts.
Mr. Fuller. — I should suppose, Mr. President, from the con-
struction of that neck, it would hardly be strong enough to hold up
the centering.
Mr. Coffin. — I find no trouble in that.
Q. (By Mr. C.-E. A. Winslow). — Is there much odor from
the aerator in operation?
A. There is always a slight odor, but there is no more odor
than from ordinary stale sewage. It is not noticeable more than
200 feet away — the odor is confined altogether within the limits of
the field.
Q. (By Mr. Hastings). — I would like to ask Mr. Barbour if
this aerator really pays — if it adds enough to the efficiency of the
filter to pay for its cost?
A. I intimated in the paper that that could not be demon-
strated in a practical plant of this kind. It would be very hard to
prove it. It would have to be proved experimentally. We have
always operated with the aerator in use. At Sandusky we had an
aerator that did not work well, and there was a marked difference
in the operation of the plant.
Q. (By Mr. Coffin). — I understand that the construction of
this aerator does not increase the head pumped against, and whether
you had the aerator or not the head would be the same?
A. The dose rises around the two lower leaves of the aerator
to within 18 inches of the bell-mouth overflow, and the use of the
aerator will usually increase the pumping head a few inches.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 57
Q. In the construction that is a constant loss?
A. It is constant loss, but at the same time the elevation of
tanks necessary for quick discharge of the sludge on the beds make
necessary the same pump lift unless the sludge beds are depressed
below the average level of the field.
Dr. D. C. Moriarta. — I would not. have the temerity, as a
novice, to attempt a discussion of Mr. Barbour's paper, were it
not for the memory of the three years of uncertainty incident to
determining and installing our plant at Saratoga ; and of the papers
read one year ago at the initial meeting of the Sanitary Section of
the Boston Society of Civil Engineers. The papers mentioned were
by men most eminent in the sanitary world, and their views were
certainly diametrically opposite. As I recall these papers, they
seem to have been the expression of prejudice rather than of study.
There is but a single feature of the Saratoga sewage disposal
plant mentioned by Mr. Barbour which I feel at all competent to
discuss, i. e., the practical outcome of our sewage disposal plans.
I would speak of the subject under three heads, maintenance,
bacterial action and annoyances.
Our maintenance is almost a fairy tale.
At the pumping station, half-time of one man, per year $300
Electrical power, one year 750
At the beds, one man in charge 660
Care of one horse that does the dragging, plowing and furrowing 200
Extra labor at the beds during the spring, fall and winter..... 1500
This total, small as it is, is for the first year, and will, I believe,
be reduced in the future. Our expense account emphasizes one
point made by Mr. Barbour, that it is wisest to use the most suitable
soil for filtration purposes, even if the sewage must be lifted by
means of pumps.
The operation of the plant has been practically free from an-
noyance. When the pumps were first started there were a few
troubles, incidental to their installation. The automatic features
thus far are all that we anticipated. At the beds there has not been
the slightest nuisance ; we are as nearly free from odor as one can
imagine. This fact I would emphasize, because when I mentioned
it a year ago at our meeting there was some doubt as to my sanity
expressed in the faces of a few.
The value of the action of anaerobic bacteria on sewage seems
to have been underestimated, because of the fact that the amount
of bacterial action varies under different conditions and with differ-
ent sewages. This is always bound to be the case if the sewage
contains any material inimical to bacterial life. In studying; this
58 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
subject intelligently, the constituents of the sewage which act as
germicides and inhibit bacterial action must be thoroughly appre-
ciated. I do not believe that the constituents of family sewage
vary to any degree that would modify the bacterial action under the
same relative conditions. Dilution might affect bacterial action
within very small limitations, while variations of temperature will
always be relatively the same. Probably all sewage from large
municipalities is contaminated with chemicals ; more, of course, if
there are large manufacturing industries discharging their waste
products into the sewers. In these instances, if bacterial action is
contemplated, there must be special study to determine to what ex-
tent such waste chemical products will inhibit bacterial action. If
the sewage is largely contaminated with chemicals, which are
germicidal in character, there should be, in my opinion, a separate
trunk sewer for the waste from these factories, which would con-
duct the sewage to the disposal area to be emptied on beds main-
tained for this particular product. Even if this sewage is not
allowed to enter the tanks, it must not go on the filter beds main-
tained for the tank sewage, as it would reduce bacterial action in
the beds, though to a lesser degree.
Another fact well known to laboratory men is of value: these
same chemicals will often precipitate organic matter already in solu-
tion, thus increasing the quantity of sludge that will be deposited
on the surface of the beds, or in the tanks if this mixed sewage
were allowed in them.
The question of closed tanks needs only to be mentioned to be
accepted, as I am sure open tanks would be a failure where the tem-
perature goes as low as it does at Saratoga.
The value of aeration, to my mind, admits of no discussion, as
all free oxygen in the sewage, while in the tanks, is essentially used
up. That the septic effluent can again be readily supplied with
oxygen we have demonstrated by analyzing the sewage as it leaves
the tank and after it has passed through the aerator. The value
of the procedure is the necessity of oxygen in the sewage for bac-
terial action to occur as it passes through the sand filters.
In conclusion, the facts as mentioned by Mr. Barbour, concern-
ing the amount of sludge taken care of by bacterial action in our
tanks, are correct. As nearly as we can estimate, during the year,
the entire amount of sludge which has entered the tanks has been
liquefied ; the quantity of sludge and scum, by actual measurement,
on November i, 1904, was practically the same as that of November
1, 1903, a year previous, and the tanks have not been emptied,
SEWAGE DISPOSAL WORKS AT SARATOGA, N. Y. 59
nor has there been any deposit removed from the surface of the beds
during this period.
Thus, I believe the treatment of normal sewage by bacterial ac-
tion, aeration and sand filters solves the problen of the treatment
of simple sewage; while contaminated sewage (that in which ger-
micidal agents are present) is an indefinite proposition, and must
be studied in each case by competent bacteriologists, to estimate the
relative value of bacterial action, taking normal sewage as a
standard.
6o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
CONCRETE-STEEL, CONSTRUCTION.
By C. A. P. Turner, Member of the Engineers' Club of Minneapolis.
[Read before the Club, October 31, 1904.*]
The history of structural engineering- as a science dates from
the early part only of the last century. The progress made has been
remarkable indeed, and the materials mainly used have varied dur-
ing well-defined periods. Up to i860 timber and cast iron were
mainly used; from i860 to 1890 wrought iron, with some cast iron
was generally employed in bridges and other engineering structures ;
from 1890 to the present time steel has replaced wrought iron; and
while, for long-span bridges, it will perhaps be some time before a
more suitable metal is found, yet for short spans, buildings, ware-
houses and the like, the enterprise of the American manufacturers of
Portland cement has placed at the disposal of the engineer a new
material ; reliable, if properly handled, and of reasonable cost, which
bids fair to largely supplant steel in the construction of minor engi-
neering works. Indeed, to-day, a warehouse designed for a capacity
of 800 pounds per square foot of floor columns, 16 to 24 feet centers,
can be built more cheaply of reinforced concrete than a wood frame
and floors with similar brick walls. Where the strength required
is less, timber, at the present rate, is slightly cheaper, since the cost
of centering, for light and heavy construction, is the same. Still, the
difference is so slight that, considering saving in insurance, owners
will shortly realize that they cannot afford to continue the construc-
tion of firetraps if they are to realize the maximum profit on their
investment.
In discussion of concrete-steel construction we must consider,
first, the action of concrete with steel, the function of each in the
combination, the problems presented by beams, slabs and columns
separately, and, finally, the mixture of concrete and questions of
cost in convenient placing of the reinforcement.
The strength of Portland concrete in compression is equal to
that of our best building stone, with the advantage that it can be
placed in a monolithic mass. The tensile strength, like stone, is
greatly inferior to that in compression. The concrete yields but little
— the stretch being confined to a weak section. When, however,
steel is imbedded in the concrete and properly disseminated through
it, Considere has shown that the deformation is some fifteen times
* Manuscript received February 2, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
CONCRETE-STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 61
as great before fracture. In the tests by some American investi-
gators, the concrete beams do not seem to fill the above condition
and results should be accepted with this in mind.
In short, the condition leading to the combination of con-
crete and steel in a beam or girder is this :-the concrete is an excel-
lent and trustworthy material for compression and steel for tension,
hence steel should be distributed in such manner as to carry the ten-
sile chord strain and tensile web stress. To do this economically we
can reason by analogy with a truss or beam. The farther from the
neutral axis the more effective the unit section, hence the reinforce-
ment for tensile chord stress should be at the bottom of the beam
or as close to it as satisfactory protection against heat of fire will
admit. Now the beams in a building are of constant section, and
since a continuous beam is stiffer and stronger than a beam of the
same section discontinuous over supports, the ideal concrete-steel
beam should be continuous and the top flange reinforced over sup-
ports. Now, by analogy with the truss, that type of combination
truss, in which steel is employed to carry the tensile web stress and
timber the compressive stress, which requires the minimum amount
of metal is the Howe type with tensile members vertical, and the
economic reinforcement for our web is hence vertical. Convenience
in planning of the reinforcement may, under certain conditions, of
course, outweigh the gain in weight by following the lines of eco-
nomic distribution of metal and modify our arrangement to some
extent.
Concrete-steel construction is capable generally of as exact
mathematical analysis as timber frame, and it should not be em-
ployed blindly, but carefully figured by an engineer conversant with
the theory of flexure. The writer has no fine-spun theories to
present which endeavor to take into consideration the tensile
strength of the cement, but merely the suggestion that it is conserva-
tive to disregard it entirely and figure on the steel alone. Now, as
to the form of our tension members, as engineers we would con-
demn immediately a section as a tension member which is nicked or
has an abrupt change in section. Where changes of stress are in-
frequent such sections are. of course, less objectionable, but it would
seem better to avoid them, providing for the shear in another
manner.
If, for example, we place one plank on another of equal length
and load in the center, the lower ends of the upper will project be-
yond the top ends of the lower and the strength of the two will be
but twice that of the one. If, however, they are bolted together at
the end so they cannot crawl by, the strength is approximately the
62 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
same as that of a solid beam of the depth of the two planks, though
the deflection would be greater. On somewhat the same general
principle we may make up for possible lack of adhesion of a plain
bar by substantial end anchorage.
In bridge work we would strongly object to the use of cold-
worked or torn rough-sheared metal in tension, and win- should we
accept such material as tension members in concrete-steel work?
They will unquestionably stand a single test load well, but how will
they stand repetitions of the same, or should we judge by any differ-
ent standard than that applied to other engineering structures, and,
if so, what is the standard to be ?
We have noted that the stretch of concrete is limited, and we
should consider this fact in its bearing on the grade of steel selected
for reinforcement. The concrete cracks on the tension side of the
beam long before the ultimate strength is reached. The exposure
of the reinforcement destroys the value of the beam from the stand-
point of fireproof construction. Now the modulus of elasticity of
higher and mild steel does not vary greatly, hence the mild steel is
to be preferred on account of its lower cost, greater reliability and
ample warning it will give by plastic deformation before fracture.
For the reasons given the writer would assign a fixed value for the
net cross-section only of the reinforcement, whether of medium steel
or stronger material, in his computations.
Viewing the question from this standpoint, the purchase of
metal for reinforcement at the rate of from 5 to 8 cents per pound is
rather an expensive frill for the usually level-headed contractor to
indulge in when rods may be purchased at $1.30 per cwt. Pittsburg,
plus half card extras.
We will now take up the discussion of columns. For economy
of space the columns should not have larger dimensions than those
usually employed in steel construction protected by tile. Such a
compression member may be subject to flexure as well as direct
compression, hence the reinforcement should be distributed in the
outer part of the section to be most effective. Considere has shown
the great advantage to be gained by restraining the concrete laterally
by winding with wire or spiral hoops.
Such reinforcement is, however, expensive, as it involves con-
siderable labor, and for that reason, in the wrriter's patent system, the
lateral reinforcement is in form of a grill of vertical rods placed
within a riveted ring to which the rods are attached with U-bolts.
In this system of construction columns carrying moderate loads,
such as 300 or 400 tons, are made up of eight rods, one of which is
bent outward into each beam supported by it, which is, as far as the
View of Finished Interior,
N. W. Knitting Co. Building, Minneapolis, Minn.,
John Wunder, Contractor.
Floor Test — 100 Tons on Panel i6'8" x is'5". Deflection of Beams ry
View Showing Floor Reinforcement.
\r.m, gT.T^;i^ rVELEEEtMC anii TnT.TrMN Reinforcement.
CONCRETE-STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 63
writer is aware, a novel and desirable provision in way of reinforce-
ment for shear, and adds greatly to the rigidity of the construction.
We will now turn our attention to the mixture of the concrete —
the size and kind of the stone used. From the fireproof stand-
point an igneous rock is evidently best, and .where trap rock can be
readily secured it should be preferred, though the limestone concrete
is probably as good as the terra-cotta floor from that standpoint and
certainly more reliable from the standpoint of strength. Limestone
dust should be barred from the mixture, though granite dust or that
of trap rock may be used in lieu of sand. There are a number of
fine-haired theories about correct proportions of mixture. Take, for
example, that given in the catalogue of the International Company :
"To determine the exact mixture take a vessel full of stone ; fill the
space in same with sand by shaking the sand into the stone until the
bulk commences to enlarge, showing no vacuum remains unfilled ;
then take the proportions of sand and stone ; use one portion of
Portland cement and two portions of sand and proportion of crushed
rock as test may determine." This sounds very well, but the bulk
of fine material sand will be increased little by the cement, and if we
do not have an excess of the soft mixture (sand and cement) mate-
rially above that required to merely fill the voids, we will surely find
them in the work.
Much has been said about dry or stiff mixtures of cement-
concrete, using as little water as may be. While this is excellent
practice when cement is to be placed in a temperature of 150 or 200
below zero, it is out of place in work conducted at temperatures
above freezing.
The concrete should be of the consistence of brick mortar, so
that it will flow slowly and require no tamping whatever. Let the
water take care of the tamping — it will do it cheaply and thoroughly.
Now, as to the size of the stone ; about half of a size that will pass a
five-eighths screen and the balance pea rock will give the most satis-
factory results.
The promoters of the various systems of concrete-steel con-
struction are doing good work in educating the general public to
the use and value of concrete, though a critical analysis of not a few
would make them appear to the bridge engineer as crude as the
Bollman type of truss compared with those in use to-day, nor can
we wonder at it when we consider the short time this class of con-
struction has been in use. Your critical study of the various systems
will well repay the time spent.
As regards experience in fireproofing steel beams and cast-iron
columns, our experience is that it costs less to put up centering for
64 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
full concrete-steel construction, columns, beams and all than to hang
slab centering from I-beams in place and then fireproof columns, thus
avoiding the annoyance of dealing with structural ironworkers in
addition to other trades on the work. The cost of reinforcement for
the skeleton of a warehouse, which in steel would cost some $12,000
to $14,000, was a mere matter of some $900.
The advantages of the ferro-concrete over steel frame lies in its
permanence, its perfect protection of steel against corrosion or de-
struction by fire, and last, but by no means least, to the peace of
mind of the builder, the avoidance of complex shop details and
opportunity for the annoying little errors and endless delays incident
to structural ironwork.
Our experience with the cost of labor in stretching cables and
the market price of same and equivalent in expanded metal has been
such as to cause the abandonment of their use and the invention of a
new system of slab or floor-plate construction, costing less than
one-third for greater strength than those on which we have received
quotations.
The accompanying photographs were taken from a building
just erected in this city, using the author's patent system.
TEST OF AN INDIRECT HEATER COIL. 65
TEST OF AN IX DIRECT HEATER COIL.
By S. C. Root, Member of the Detroit Engineering Society.
[Read before the Society, October 21, 1904.*]
The object of this test was to determine exactly the amount of
steam condensed in an indiiect coil, under varying conditions of
air velocity through the coil, temperature of the entering air and
depth of the coil.
For this purpose an experimental heater, with fan and engine,
was set up during the cold weather of last winter, and thoroughly
tested. The coil consisted of eight No. 15 regular sections, con-
taining a total of 2400 lineal feet of inch pipe set in staggered rows.
Each section of this coil contains 100 sq. ft. of condensation surface
measured on the outside surface, and each section was separately
valved so that any desired number of sections could be used. The
fan was a 60-inch full house steel-plate blower, and was driven by a
belted 5x5 vertical engine. The fan was arranged to draw the
air through the coil, and the heated air was discharged from the
fan through a galvanized iron pipe about fifteen feet long. In this
pipe were placed tubes connected to a water gauge, for the purpose
of measuring the air volume. This water gauge was an ordinary
U-tube. On the end of the blast pipe was fitted a sliding blast gale
with three different-sized openings, by means of which the discharge
opening could be made full, f , J or ^ open. This variation in size
of fan discharge had nothing to do with the heater test, but was used
to obtain data from which to work up a fan test.
Tn this heater test, half-hour runs were made at each speed and
for each heater coil depth varying from two to eight sections and
for a given constant temperature of incoming air. The tempera-
tures at various points were noted, and at the end of a half-hour run
the condensation for that period was weighed. To prevent the
steam from blowing through the coil and to receive the condensa-
tion, a Morehead tank trap was used. After passing through the
trap the water was received in a barrel on scales. Exhaust steam
from the factory engine was used entirely in this test. The outfit
is quite clearly shown in the photograph.
Of course, tests of this kind have been made before, but where
made by the manufacturers the results naturally have not been given
out for publication. Some quite elaborate tests were made some
years ago by Professor Carpenter at Cornell University, and these
* Manuscript received January 18, 1905. — Secretary. Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
6
66
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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DIAGRAM 2
TEST OF AN INDIRECT HEATER COIL. 67
results were published in his book on heating and ventilating.
These tests were, however, made with a constant air velocity of
1250 feet per minute in the coil. While this is undoubtedly the
average air velocity in the ordinary fan heating system, this some-
times varies widely, and in the test herein, described this velocity
varied from 1000 to 1700 feet. Mr. Walter Snow, of the B. F.
Sturtevant Co., in a lecture delivered at Cornell University some
time ago, gave some diagrams showing the relative condensation
and temperature for varying air velocity and coil depth. However,
as the curves showed only relative values and gave no data on which
to base the ratio, they were practically useless. These curves were
later published by Mr. Wm. S. Munroe in his new book on "Steam
Heating and Ventilation."
The following results are divided into two parts : ( 1 ) Those
for air entering the coil at a temperature of o to io° F., and (2)
those for air entering the coil at a temperature of 40 to 500. That
is, the complete test was made in the coldest weather of last winter,
and then repeated in the early spring to get another set of readings.
This was to determine the condensation in the coils under different
weather conditions, as these coils are often installed in buildings
where fresh air is introduced at all times for ventilation, as in all
public buildings as factories the air is usually re-circulated, and so
enters the coil at from 40 to 6o° F.
Diagram No. 1 shows the relation between condensation, in
pounds per square foot per hour, and the temperature of air after
passing through coils with varying air velocity. Naturally the tem-
perature decreases and condensation increases with the air velocity
increasing, as shown by these curves. The temperature increases
inversely as the air velocity up to a point known as the temperature
of still air in a steam coil. This is not shown by these curves, but
that temperature is probably about 650. In the other direction the
temperature falls off as the air velocity increases, and by a slight
stretch of the imagination we can see that the temperature becomes
zero where the air velocity is infinitely great, as at such velocity no
heat would be absorbed from the steam pipes.
It will be observed that the condensation curves slope gradually
upward, the condensation increasing with the air velocity. With
a decrease in air velocity the condensation falls off until, at zero
velocity or in still air, the condensation rate equals that obtained
in a direct radiator or about 0.3 pounds per square foot per hour. In
the opposite direction, these curves gradually approach the hori-
zontal, and would be parallel to the horizontal at the point where
the condensation cannot be further increased by any increase in the
68
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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DIAGRAM 4
TEST OF AN INDIRECT HEATER COIL. 69
air velocity. From this point the curve would continue as a
horizontal line.
On Diagram No. 2 this relation between temperature and con-
densation is shown in another way. This shows the variation for
constant air velocity and varying coil depth. A separate curve is
plotted for each constant air velocity. Both of these sets of curves
would evidently become parallel to the horizontal if continued,
indicating that there is a point beyond which an increase in coils
will not increase the air temperature or rate of condensation. In
theory this point would be where the air temperature was equal to
the temperature of the steam. There is therefore a practical limit
to the number of coils which can be placed in a bank with good
economy, and this limit is about 8 or 10 sections. In practical
work, coils are seldom made up in banks of greater depth than 6
sections for exhaust steam, and 4 or 5 sections for high-pressure
steam. With this combination, the best average results of tempera-
ture and condensation are obtained. This point is illustrated on
Diagram No. 1, where it will be observed that the temperature and
the condensation rate increase with a decreasing increment beyond
4 sections. This is of course due to the fact that the temperature
difference is so much less in the inner coils, and it is this fact
which practically limits the depth of the coil.
Diagrams Nos. 3 and 4 again show the same relation between
temperature and condensation, but in making up these curves the
data used were obtained with the entering air at 400 to 500 F., which
of course makes considerable difference in the results. However,
the curves, of course, have the same general form, and all previous
observations apply to these.
Reference has been made to some tests made by Professor
Carpenter at Cornell. During the past winter, some extensive
tests of indirect cast-iron sections under fan blast were made by
the American Radiator Co. These cast-iron sections consisted of
box-shaped sections, on the surface of which were formed small
projections of diamond shape, which gave the coil extended surface.
Diagram No. 5 shows graphically the relation between the results
obtained by Professor Carpenter in his tests of a regular hot-blast
coil, the results obtained in the test of the cast-iron indirects and
the results obtained by the writer with a regular pipe or blast coil.
These curves are all plotted for an air velocity of about 1250 feet
per minute, and in each case the air enters at a temperature of from
400 to 500 F., except in the case of the curves shown in dotted lines,
which represent results obtained with air entering at from o° to io°.
The curves sloping upward to the right represent variations in
?o
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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DIAGRAM t>
TEST OF AN INDIRECT HEATER COIL. 71
temperature, while those sloping downward to the right represent
condensation variation. It will be noticed that both the cast-iron
section and Professor Carpenter's results, as far as temperature in-
crease is concerned, show up better than the writer's results. This,
however, is due to the fact that we used entirely exhaust steam in
the blast coil, while in the other two tests, live steam of at least 6
pounds pressure was used. This makes a great difference in the
temperature.
However, the condensation curve shows up greatly to the ad-
vantage of the pipe coil, and this in spite of the steam pressure
difference. In the cold air comparison, the curves vary less widely.
I might add that in Professor Carpenter's test the air entered the
coil at from 6o° to 70° F., or about 150 to 20° higher than in the
other two cases, which accounts for the much lower position of his
condensation curve. For that reason a graphical comparison is
hardly fair. If these tests could have been made under the same
conditions, the curves would undoubtedly have been coincident.
The result obtained by testing different coils may best be com-
pared by reducing the results to heat units radiated per square foot
of surface per hour. This also puts the results in tangible form so
that they may be used in designing coils for any purpose and under
any given known conditions. Of course, all results must be com-
pared at a common constant air velocity. I have tried to show this
relation in Diagram No. 6. The lower curve shows the heat radia-
tion from a standard hot-blast coil, as determined from Professor
Carpenter's experiments.
Points for plotting this curve were obtained from data found in
Professor Carpenter's late book on heating and ventilating. Pro-
fessor Carpenter has also made extensive tests of cast-iron radiators
under fan blast, but at such low air velocity that no comparison
could be fairly made with these results. The results would, how-
ever, probably follow closely those shown above for cast-iron sec-
tions.
The 4 other curves show the variation in heat radiation for
constant air velocity. The curves in full lines are for air entering
the coil at ordinary temperature, while those in dotted lines are for
air entering at about zero or slightly above.
These are plotted for an air velocity of about 1250 feet per
minute. For any other air velocity the curves would be above or
below these, as the case might be, but parallel to these.
Diagram No. 7 shows the heat radiation from a standard blast
coil in B. T. U. per hour per square foot per degree difference in
temperature between the steam and entering air and for a varying
72
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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DIAGRAM 7
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Journal of the Association of Engineering? Societies.
S. C. Root: Test of an Indirect Heat*
Engine Speed
Fan Speed
Temperature of Steam
Temperature of Condensation
Latent Heat
Entering Air
Temperature in Coil
Temperature of Discharge . .
Condensation — one hour ....
Barometer
Static Pressure
Dynamic Pressure
Velocity Pressure
Air Velocity
Volume
Velocity in Coil -
Condensation
Radiation
Temperature Rise
Revolutions per Minute
Degrees Fahrenheit
British Thermal Units
Degrees Fahrenheit
Pounds
Inches of Mercury
Full Open Discharge Pipe — inches of water. .
./ " " " " " " ..
y2 „ „ „ „ „ „ _
/ ■' " " " " « ...
Full " " " " " " ..
X - " " " " " ..
y2 « „ „ „ „ „ _
% , „ ,. u „ „ __
Inches of Water
Feet per Minute
Cubic Feet per Minute
Feet per Minute
Pounds per Square Foot
British Thermal Units per Sq. Foot per Hour
Degrees Fahrenheit
Two Sections.
Three Sections.
Four Sections.
Five Sections.
Six Sections.
Seven Sections.
300
625
221
215
965
2
65
60
290
29-55
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154
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1 1200
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129
440
916
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133
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Eight Sections.
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4069
1530
1631
125
300
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970
4
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134
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29.25
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10300
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142
Engine Speed
Fan Speed
Temperature of Steam
Temperature of Condensatio
Latent Heat
Entering Air
Temperature in Coil
Temperature of Discharge .
Condensation — one hour . . .
Barometer
Static Pressure
Dynamic Pressure
Velocity Pressure
Air Velocity
Volume
Velocity in Coil
Condensation
Radiation
Temperature Rise
Revolutions per Minute
Degrees Fahrenheit
British Thermal Units
Degrees Fahrenheit
Pounds ,
Inches of Mercury
Full Open Discharge Pipe — inches of water
Ya " " " " " "
A " " " " " "
Ya- " " " " " "
Full " " " " "
Two Sections.
Three Sections.
Four Sections.
306
638
212
206
97i
43
380
29.31
33/8
Ya
1 A
J4 " " " " " " ... 3/2
Inches of Water ;X
Feet per Minute 2918
Cubic Feet per Minute ^300
Feet per Minute 1 100
Pounds per Square Foot 1.9
British Thermal Units per Sq. Foot per Hour.. 845
Degrees Fahrenheit j 45
3/0
770
214
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968
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400
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29.56
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is
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SO
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29.86
1/2
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76
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29.86
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1.63
1580
67
386
804
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971
4S
112
104
660
iA
iYa
■7S
3265
9340
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1.65
1602
440
916
216
44
108
106
740
29.32
o
1 A
3A
AYs
I
2TS
3/2
All
Ys
3844
10900
1440
1.85
1791
64
Five Sections.
Six Sections.
300
625
212
206
9/1
46
132
716
29.32
o
Ya
1/2
2Ys
T/2
IyTi
ifi
2ts
IO4O
1-33
1390
86
360
750
206
9/i
129
730
2Ys
3
Ys
Its
3
5ts
8460
1 100
1.46
1417
81
400
834
206
971
750
29.32
t-Ys
Ys
3318
94SO
1250
i-S
1456
77
217
210
45
122
154
3
2.Y&
3/2
AYs
Ys
3927
1 1200
1470
i-73
1666
77
49
148
760
3.46
5/8
2352
6700
I.27
1230
350
730
217
2l8
971
SO
144
840
29.46
3Ys
iYs
2/
3Ys
Ys
3318
9450
1240
i-4
1360
94
214
206
25/
5 is
%
iYa
3/
55/
Ys
3318
9450
1240
1.44
1400
90
215
206
972
47
135
1039
28.83
o
1 A
3 A
Seven Sections.
Eight Sections.
12000
1570
1.72
1670
300
625
214
210
968
50
154
810
28.75.
1/2
Its
23/
370
770
940
28.9I
1 120
104
3150
9OOO
1 180
1-34
I30O
I06
400
835
214
208
970
40
142
28.91
O
It's
23/
4Ys
Ya
Its
2tI
5 A
3/
3637
10300
1360
i-4
1360
102
440
916
212
207
970
40
140
1060
28.91
iJ4
%
3937
1 1200
1470
1-52
1470
96
310
646
212
203
974
40
160
2?4
/
2772
7900
1040
1. 11
1080
120
370
770
212
206
971
40
157
965
29.04
33i8
9450
1240
1.22
1 170
117
220
206
974
2tS
5/
%
Its
2fs
5 A
3477
9900
1300
1.36
1320
ii5
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960
218
206
973
38
1220
29.25
2A
1 A
4578'
13000
1700
I-S3
1490
no
TEST OF AN INDIRECT HEATER COIL. 72
depth of coil in sections. This reduces the results to such form
that they are of use in any given case where we have certain known
conditions. These were plotted from data obtained with air enter-
ing- at between 400 and 50°. For zero conditions these curves
would of course vary slightly in position. Naturally these curves
have the same general form as the condensation curves already
shown.
Diagram No. 8 shows the relative heat radiation in B. T. U.
for constant air velocity of 1250 feet and a varying coil depth, the
radiation being given in B. T. U. per square foot per hour per degree
difference in temperature between the steam and the entering air.
These curves are arranged to show the relation between results ob-
tained by the writer from the standard blast coil, results obtained by
American Radiator Co. from their cast-iron sections and results
obtained by Professor Carpenter in his experiments. From these
we see that the heat radiation, like the condensation, varies inversely
as the coil depth, and from Diagram No. 7 we also see that it varies
directly as the air velocity through the coil.
The results obtained by the writer in this test of a standard
blast coil of one-inch wrought-iron pipe compared with the results
obtained by the American Radiator Co. with their new cast-iron
section indicate that the latter company have a well-designed
heater section which will give practically as good efficiency under the
same conditions as will any blast coil of wrought-iron pipe now
being manufactured by any of the various fan companies. This
section is so designed that the air comes into intimate contact with
all parts of the extended surface, which gives high efficiency.
Although these sections are of cast iron, they are tested to
from 80 to 100 pounds, and so are perfectly safe for all ordinary
heating work. It is more than likely that these cast-iron sections
will soon entirely replace the present ordinary blast coil of wrought
pipe, due to the efficiency, general adaptability and reduced cost of
this new section.
IVIAF3
Showing the locations of the Societies forming
THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
(Each dot represents a membership of one hundred, or fraction thereof over fifty.)
Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the
Journal, but also the Society before which such articles were read.
Association INDEXED
OF
Engineering Societies.
Organized 1881.
VOL. XXXIV. MARCH, 1905. No. 3.
This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or
for the statements or opinions of members of the Societies.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT AND
TRANSMISSION IN CALIFORNIA,
By Robert McF. Doble, Member of the Technical Society of the Pacific
Coast.
[Read before the Autumnal Meeting of the Society, December 1, 1904.*]
This paper is a brief historical review of the art of electrically
transmitting to market the power of California mountain streams.
Unknown less than twenty years ago, the progress made in this
art in California during the last decade is so remarkable as to
attract the attention of engineers the world over.
The business of commercially transmitting power over long
distances is due to the development of alternating current electrical
apparatus and the practicability of obtaining very high voltages,
which are easily converted as circumstances may require.
The locations of the principal plants and transmissions are
shown on the accompanying map, Fig. I, and the principal data
of each are given in the diagram, Fig. 2.
POMONA.
The Pomona plant,which went into operation early in 1893, was
the first alternating current transmission system in California, and it
converted the energy of San Antonio Creek to the uses of the people
of Pomona and San Bernardino. Water, under a head of 402 feet,
was utilized, and single-phase electrical current was generated at
a pressure of 1000 volts. At that time the high-tension transformer,
as we now have it, was unknown, and, to get the pressure of 10,000
* Manuscript received February 13, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
8
76 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
volts desired for the transmission, the generator pressure was
stepped-up to 500 volts by each of twenty oil-insulated transformers,
connected in parallel on the generator side and in series on the trans-
mission side. The twenty 500-volt coils in series gave 10,000 volts
for transmission. The 28^-mile line to San Bernardino was longer
than any other commercial line in the world. The wires were
carried on flint-glass insulators of a special design, which became
known as the Pomona type. Much credit is due to the builders
of this plant for their ingenuity and perseverance in overcoming
obstacles in a field that was entirely new.
REDLANDS.
The Pomona plant was followed almost immediately by the
Redlands plant, which was put into operation in September, 1893.
It was the first to use the 3-phase system and it marks the beginning
of the present form of Californian power transmission.
The energy of water from Mill Creek, under 377 feet head, was
used to drive the generators.
The first generating unit installed has the tangential water
wheels, outside the building, mounted on a shaft which extends
through the wall and is connected, by means of a coupling, to the
generator shaft, there being five bearings in line.
Fig. 3 is a view of the interior of the power station. The
generators are 250-kilowatt, 50-cycle, 2500-volt machines. They
were the first 3-phase generators built in the United States, and they
have been in service more than 11 years. They were designed to
run in parallel, a thing at that time declared by some to be absolutely
impossible.
Power was at first transmitted at the generator pressure a
distance of j\ miles to Redlands, over two 3-phase circuits of No. 0,
B. & S. gauge, bare copper wire, supported on deep-groove double-
petticoat glass insulators. The principal power customer was the
Union Ice Company, where a 120-kilowatt synchronous motor was
installed. This motor operates at 2300 volts. It was the first of
its kind built in the United States, and it is still running.
The three transformers shown were installed in 1896, when
the 22-mile transmission to Riverside was built. These are 100-
kilowatt capacity each, and were a radical departure from the con-
ventional practice of that time. Each consists of two units in
series, on both high- and low-tension sides, the coils being immersed
in oil in a water- jacketed cast-iron tank. They raise the pressure
from 2500 to 11,000 volts.
SKETCH MAP
SHOWING THE LOCATION Of THE PRINCIPAL
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSIONS
IN CALIFORNIA
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Fig. i. Sketch Map showing the Location of the Principal Hydro-
Electric Power Transmissions in California.
DATA OF THE PRINCIPAL TRANSMISSION PLANTS IN CALIFORNIA
FEET HEAD 0
MILES' TRANSMITTED 0
TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE 0 \
500
LOOO
50
100
1,500
150
2,000
200
2.500
250
SB23 20.000 40,000 60.000 80.000 100,000
18931 POMONA
1895
1896
1897
1896
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
REDLANDS
BODIE
ANCELS CAMP
FOLSOM
NEVADA COUNTY
SAN JOAQUIN
BIC CREEK
NEWCASTLE
3AKERSFIELD
BLUE LAKES
YUBA
SAN CABRIEL
SANTA ANA
MT WHITNEY
MILL CREEK N0.2
AUBURN
BUTTE CREEK
TRUCKEE RIVER
COLCATE
VOLTA
ELECTRA
LITTLE BEAR RIVER
ONTARIO
MILL CREEK N0.3
FALL CREEK
DE SABLA
AMERICAN RIVER
SHASTA RIVER
KILARC
LYTLE CREEK
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Fig.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 77
The original switchboard was a framework of redwood, with
the instruments mounted thereon, including an early form of
acoustic synchronizer, known as the "growler." Each of the two
phases to be synchronized operated upon a sheet-iron diaphragm,
the two diaphragms being separated several inches, and inclosed,
facing each other, in a brass cylinder. It was expected that the
operator could detect synchronism by the sound emitted through
the little hole in the middle of the brass tube. Unfortunately, the
various harmonics generated made it impossible to distinguish, with
any degree of accuracy, when the machines were in synchronism,
and the little instrument is preserved for its historic interest only.
The famous Redlands type insulator was developed, and its
virtues proved on the transmission to Riverside, which was com-
pleted in December, 1896. This was the first high-tension insulator
of porcelain, and the forerunner of the best high-tension insulators
now in use. This plant has been remodeled and is in service.
BODIE.
About this time, 1893, a small plant was put into operation in
Mono County. Water from Green Creek, under 350 feet head, was
utilized to run a 120-kilowatt single-phase generator. Current
was transmitted, at the generator pressure, 3500 volts, over a line
\2\ miles long, to the 20-stamp mill of the Standard Consolidated
Mining Company, at Bodie, where it was successfully used for
lighting and power.
ANGELS CAMP.
A small beginning was made, in 1895, by the Utica Mining
Company, who used water from the North Fork of the Stanislaus
River, under 570 feet head, to drive a tangential wheel belt-con-
nected to a 75-kilowatt single-phase generator. Current was trans-
mitted, at 2500 volts, about a quarter of a mile, and used for light-
ing the company's mine. This installation was superseded, in
1899, by a larger plant, which, besides supplying light and power
for the mine, sends current to the town of Angels Camp, a distance
of 8 miles, at 16,500 volts pressure.
FOLSOM.
The next important plant was completed at Folsom, on the
American River, in July, 1895. A heavy masonry dam, shown in
Fig. 4, was built, and a canal, 50 feet wide and nearly 2 miles long,
was made along the east bank, conveying the water to the power
house. An interesting feature of the dam is the great shutter,
78 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
located on its crest and raised or lowered by hydraulic rams, by
means of which the storage capacity of the dam is greatly increased
without necessitating extra strength to withstand the freshets of
the rainy season. At the lower end of the canal there is a double
forebay, conducting the water to the electric power plant.
The hydraulic machinery consists of four pairs of 30-inch
turbines of 1200 horse-power capacity each. These run at 300 rev-
olutions per minute, under a 55-foot head. Each pair of wheels has
a 10- foot steel-banded flywheel weighing 10,000 pounds, and is
direct-connected to a 750-kilowatt, 3-phase generator, the shaft ex-
tending through the wall of the power house into the generator room.
The generators appear in Fig. 5, and are said to have been the
largest 3-phase machines made up to that time. Current is con-
ducted through a marble switchboard, with a double set of bus-
bars, to the air-blast transformers upstairs, where the pressure is
raised from 800 to 11,000 volts for transmission to Sacramento.
All switching is done on the low-tension side.
The transmission line is 21^ miles long and consists of four
separate 3-phase circuits on two separate pole lines, one on each side
of the county road. Redlands type insulators were used.
This plant was the first transmission system built on the Pacific
Coast to carry a street-railway load, and it proved a complete suc-
cess. It has been merged into the system of the California Gas and
Electric Corporation, and still is in regular operation.
NEVADA COUNTY.
The Nevada County plant is especially interesting as the fore-
runner of the most extensive hydro-electric transmission system in
the world, namely the "Bay Counties" system. The original plant
was started in February, 1896. About 6000 miners' inches of
water were diverted from the South Fork of the Yuba River, con-
ducted in a wooden flume along the side of the canon about 3^ miles
to a 48-inch steel-riveted pipe leading to the power house, 206 feet
below. The pipe terminates in a 48-inch steel distributor, com-
monly called a receiver, having lateral branches leading to the
water-wheel nozzles. The capacity of the plant was 1000 horse
power until the spring of 1897, when it was increased to 2000
horse power. Provision was made for four generating units, each
consisting of two double-nozzle tangential water wheels on the same
shaft, direct-connected through a coupling to a 350-kilowatt Stan-
ley inductor-type generator, which delivers 2-phase current at 5500
volts and 16,000 alternations per minute. There were no raising
Fig. 3. Interior of the Original Redlands Plant.
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HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 79
transformers, current being sent out at 5500 volts over two 2-phase
4- wire circuits to Nevada City and to Grass Valley, a little less than
8 miles away. This was the first 2-phase transmission system in
California, and, although the transmission line has been entirely
rebuilt, it is interesting to notice some of its details. A galvanized
barbed wire was placed on the tops of the poles and grounded
every few poles with the hope that it would effectually prevent
disturbances due to lightning. The two telephone wires were
placed one above the other on the same poles that supported the
transmission wires. Both telephone and power circuits were trans-
posed. Low-resistance telephone instruments were tried at first,
but were found to be very unsatisfactory.
In 8 months from the time of beginning work on this plant,
current was being delivered to the customers. Considering the dif-
ficulties overcome and the state of the art at that time, this was
remarkably quick construction.
The water wheels at this plant have been replaced and high-
frequency 2-phase current is still being supplied to numerous mines.
When the demand for electric current became greater than the
capacity of this plant, a high-frequency 2-phase generator was in-
stalled at the Colgate plant, which has since been running in parallel
with the generators in the Nevada County plant.
SAN JOAQUIN.
Fresno and vicinity are supplied with electric power from the
San Joaquin plant, which went into operation in May, 1896.
At that time this plant had the distinction of utilizing the
greatest hydraulic pressure and of having the longest electrical
transmission in practical use.
Water is taken from two branches of the North Fork of the San
Joaquin River and conducted through 7 miles of ditch to a reservoir
141 1 feet above the power house. The pressure pipe is 24 and
20 inches in diameter, and is provided with air and relief valves.
The lower part consists of 20-inch lap-welded pipe with flange
joints, terminating at the bottom in a 30-inch riveted steel receiver
made of f-inch plate, and provided with relief valves. There were
three tangential water-wheel units, located under the receiver and
over the single tail-race. The wheel shafts are extended through
the wall of the power house and coupled directly to the generator
shafts. The generators are 340-kilowatt, 60-cycle, 3-phase, 700-volt
machines and run at 600 revolutions per minute. Two exciter units
are driven by water from a separate tank part way up the pipe line.
8o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The tank is filled from the main pipe and supplies a separate and
constant pressure, which is used for the water-wheel governors also.
Current was originally stepped-up to 11,000 volts and transmitted-
35 miles to Fresno. In 1898, the line was extended to Hanford,
making a total length of 69 miles, and the transformer connections
on the high-tension side were changed from mesh to star, giving a
transmission pressure of 19,500 volts. This brought the San Joa-
quin plant again in the lead for both distance of transmission and
line voltage.
When this plant was put into operation, some rather interest-
ing things happened as a result of the enormous hydraulic pressure
utilized. After two days' operation, the concrete lining of the
tail-race was worn away and the water began coming through fis-
sures in the rock into the power house. The concrete was replaced
and floored over with 3-inch planks, sheathed with f-inch steel
plates. In less than three days a 5-inch jet which had been left run-
ning had worn through the steel plate, through the planking and
into the concrete again. A cast-iron plate 1^ inches thick was then
fed to the jets as fast as it wore away.
In 1902, new water wheels were installed and a fourth unit
added. These new wheels were the first to be equipped with the
needle regulating deflecting nozzle. At the same time a second tail-
race was dug parallel to the first and opening into it.
BIG CREEK.
In June, 1896, the plant of the Big Creek Power Co. was put
into operation. Water was conveyed about 2 miles in a wooden
flume, and a head of 923 feet was utilized, the water being brought
down through 1935 feet of wrought-iron pipe, with leaded and
banded joints, to a 500-horse-power tangential water wheel direct-
connected to two 150-kilowatt, 2-phase, noo-volt generators, run-
ning at 600 revolutions per minute. The pressure is raised from
1 100 volts, 2-phase, to 11,000 volts, 3-phase, for transmission 17
miles to Santa Cruz. The transmission line consists of two 3-phase
circuits of No. 5 bare copper wire, and originally was transposed
at every pole. The telephone wires are supported on brackets just
below the lower cross-arm and transposed every fifth pole.
The location of the original transmission line along the ocean
beach for about 15 miles of its length proved to be a matter of ex-
ceeding annoyance in the frequent shut-downs of the service that
were caused by the fogs, sea spray and dust, which settled on them
and resulted in the frequent burning out of insulators, pins, cross-
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 81
arms and even of the poles. This condition led to the building
of a new transmission line placed well inland, far out of reach of the
deleterious influences found on the coast.
NEWCASTLE.
In 1896, the Central California Electric Company, which is
affiliated with the South Yuba Water Company, began to distribute
electricity from its plant at Newcastle.
The hydraulic system of the South Yuba Water Company is
one of the most extensive and most completely developed in the
State, comprising as it does a very large watershed, 20 reservoirs
in the high mountains and 450 miles of canals and ditches.
The Newcastle plant utilizes a fall of 452 feet in the main
canal of the South Yuba Water Company to drive tangential water
wheels direct-connected to 400-kilowatt, 2-phase, 60-cycle, 500-volt
generators. The capacity of the plant is about 1000 horse power.
The pressure is stepped-up from 500 to 15,000 volts for transmis-
sion 29 miles to Sacramento. This was the highest voltage then in
use in California.
The demands upon this plant became so great that in 1899, to
help carry the peak load, a small auxiliary water-power plant was
built near Auburn, utilizing a head of 200 feet to operate a 500-
kilowatt, 2-phase unit, the pressure being stepped-up from 550 to
15,000 volts for transmission. The two plants are operated in
parallel. The line to Sacramento was completed in 1897, and on
starting the Auburn station, the extreme length of transmission
reached 34 miles.
BAKERSFIELD.
In March, 1897, the 1500-horse-power plant of the Power
Development Company was completed. Water is diverted from
the Kern River without dam or headworks, and at first was con-
veyed in a covered wooden flume about 1^ miles along the pre-
cipitous sides of the rocky Kern Canon to the head of the pressure
pipe, as appears in Fig. 6.
The water descends through 540 feet of 66-inch riveted steel
pipe to a steel distributor, provided with a 16-foot air chamber at
one end, which has since been removed. The head utilized is 202
feet. Water is taken from the distributor through laterals to two
sets of tangential water wheels, each set direct-connected to its
generator through a spring-actuated transmission dynamometer.
This dynamometer operated a hydraulic valve which changed the
82 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
quantity of water impinging upon the wheel in proportion to the
power transmitted and thus acted as a speed regulator.
The two generators are 3-phase, 450-kilowatt machines. Air-
blast transformers raise the pressure from 550 to 11,500 volts for
transmission 14^ miles to Bakersfield. The transmission was later
extended to Stockdale, 24 miles from the power plant.
Although the flume was well constructed it was difficult to
maintain it because of rock slides, so in 1900 the company, at an
expense of $140,000, drove a tunnel through the mountain to
supersede the flume. From this time the flume as a conveyor of
water for power plant has declined in favor among leading engi-
neers.
This plant is still running. It is the first one built expressly
for operating centrifugal pumps for irrigation work.
BLUE LAKES.
The Blue Lakes plant, put into operation in August, 1897,
marks the beginning of a noteworthy enterprise, which was the
basis of the first long-distance transmission line into San Francisco.
The founders of the company were the men identified with the old
Blue Lakes Water Company, whose hydraulic system embraced
300 square miles of the watershed of the Mokelumne River, and
included 11 reservoirs in the high Sierras.
The Blue Lakes plant was most carefully designed and con-
structed and in it we find many features that have since come to be
standard practice. Water was taken from the Butte Ditch, near
the Slabtown and Petty reservoirs, and conveyed through a steel
pipe line 3240 feet long to the water-wheel nozzles 1043 teet below.
A profile of the system is shown in Fig. 7. The pipe tapers,
being 48 inches in diameter at the top and 22 inches in diameter at
the bottom, where the thickness is ^ inch and the pipe is lap welded.
A noteworthy feature is that there are no horizontal bends in the
pipe line and that it was firmly anchored to bed rock and completely
buried. This was the first of the power-plant pipes installed with-
out the customary air valves, relief valves, air chambers or re-
ceiver. The customary receiver at the lower end of the pipe was
replaced by branches leading directly to the nozzles. This design
reduces the hydraulic loss to a minimum.
The generating units, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9, were a
marked improvement over what had preceded them.
The water wheel and the electric generator were placed as
close together as possible; the water wheel being mounted upon
Fig. 8. Generating Unit in the Blue Lakes Plant.
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Fig. q. Interior of the Blue Lakes Plant.
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HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 83
the extended end of the generator shaft, overhanging one of the two
bearings. This makes the most compact unit possible and the de-
sign has become standard practice.
A separate tail-race was provided for each water wheel, and the
advantage of this arrangement has become evident.
The building was a steel frame covered with corrugated iron
and lined with asbestos. It was noticeable for the compact, logical
arrangement of the machinery, as shown in Fig. 10. The three gen-
erating units were in a row, the exciter units being on the same floor
level but raised on pedestals to make them conveniently accessible.
The switchboard was located behind the generating units on a
higher floor, with the high-tension panels behind the low-tension
panels. The step-up transformers were located on framework
above the switchboard apparatus. The transmission line was orig-
inally 2-phase, 4-wire, and extended through Amador and Calaveras
Counties to various towns, mines and mills. This line was re-
constructed into a 3-phase line by the Standard Electric Company
and is now a portion of the Standard System of the California Gas
and Electric Corporation.
BROWNS VALLEY.
In 1897, the men who built the Nevada County Power Plant
organized the Yuba Power Co. and began building a plant to
supply current to Browns Valley and Marysville, which was finished
in the incredibly short time of 125 days, and went into operation in
March, 1898. A drop of 300 feet in the main ditch of the Browns
Valley Irrigation System is utilized. The water descends through
a 42-inch riveted steel pipe to a steel receiver. About 2000 horse
power <is developed by three sets of tangential water wheels
located under the receiver and over the single tail-race ; an arrange-
ment like that at the Fresno plant. Each wheel has a double nozzle
with deflecting hoods to turn the jets away from the wheel when the
load decreases. The wheel shafts extend through the power-house
wall and are coupled to the generator shafts. The generators are
360-kilowatt, 2-phase, inductor-type machines, delivering current
at a periodicity of 8000 alternations per minute and a pressure of
2400 volts. The switchboard was equipped with hot-wire amme-
ters and static voltmeters. The pressure was increased to 16,700
volts for transmission by means of oil-insulated water-cooled trans-
formers. A new high-tension double-break switch was introduced
in this plant, and the outgoing wires were provided with three choke
coils in series and a set of newlv designed lightning arresters.
84 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The transmission lines are 2-phase. They extend to Browns
Valley, y\ miles, and to Marysville, i8J miles from the power
house. The construction of these lines was not very different from
the lines of the Nevada County plant. Triple-petticoat annealed-
glass insulators were used and ^-inch steel pins with porcelain
bases.
This plant has been remodeled and is a part of the Bay Counties
system of the California Gas and Electric Corporation.
SAN GABRIEL.
A 2000-horse-power plant was built on the San Gabriel River,
near Azusa, in July, 1898, and power transmitted 23 miles to Los
Angeles. The hydraulic system of this plant was designed to secure
and utilize all of the available water supply, and it possesses some
interesting features. The dam is submerged over 20 feet in the
gravel bed of the stream, going down to bed rock to intercept the
underground flow, which is all the water there is in the dry season.
The means of conveying the water represents the most advanced
practice of that time. The water way is nearly 6 miles long, is
entirely covered, and is 66 per cent, tunnels, 28 per cent, redwood
stave pipe and 5 per cent, concrete culvert. The balance consists
of pipe curves and connecting pieces. Eight hundred feet head is
utilized and four sets of tangential water wheels drive four 300-
kilowatt, 2-phase generators, delivering current at 500 volts and 50
cycles. The transmission is at 16,500 volts, 3-phase, 23 miles to Los
Angeles, over two circuits on a single-pole line. There is an auxili-
ary steam plant in Los Angeles, which is successfully run in parallel
with the water-power plant. A great variety of electric service is
supplied, and the switchboard system is one of the most elaborate
in existence for an installation of no more than 3000 horse power.
The system is being operated by the Pacific Light and Power Co.
SANTA ANA.
The Santa Ana plant has been in continuous operation since
January, 1899. Water is taken from the Santa Ana River and
from Bear Creek, and is conveyed through 18 tunnels and 16
flumes, having a capacity of 120 second feet, a distance of 2§ miles
to the penstock. Sand boxes and screens are provided for clearing
the water; also an ingenious device for removing leaves from the
flume.
The pressure pipe lines, two in number, are 30 inches in diameter
and 2210 feet long, and are buried at an average depth of 7 feet,
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HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 85
no other anchorage being' deemed necessary. Gate valves in the
two pipes and in the distributor make it possible to drain and in-
spect either pipe line without interfering with the operation of the
plant. Laterals lead from the distributor to the single-jet deflecting
nozzles under the floor of the building. The head of water utilized
is 735 feet.
The power-house building is of concrete, long and narrow,
and designed for eight generating units of 750-kilowatt capacity
each. Each of the four units installed consists of a tangential
water wheel and a 750-kilowatt, 3-phase, 50-cycle, 750-volt genera-
tor, mounted on the same base, with a single shaft supported by
three bearings. These units run at 300 revolutions per minute,
the speed being kept constant by means of Lombard type-F gover-
nors, the first governors of that type ever made.
There are three 30-kilowatt, 175-volt exciters driven at 1000
revolutions per minute by individual tangential wheels and governed
by small sectoidal governors.
The station wires are laid in ducts under the floor leading to
the marble switchboard and thence to the 250-kilowatt, air-blast
transformers.
They step-up the pressure from 750 to 33,000 volts for trans-
mission 83 miles to Los Angeles. The transformers are connected
in star on the high-tension side with the neutral point grounded.
A complete set of high-tension switches in duplicate is provided,
and lightning arresters are installed. The 33,000-volt, 83-mile
transmission to Los Angeles, was, when built, unequaled in length
and voltage by any line in the world. It consists of two circuits
of No. 1 medium hard-drawn copper wires arranged in isosceles
triangles on a single-pole line and supported on 6-inch white glazed
triple-petticoat porcelain insulators especially designed for this line
and tested to 70,000 volts. The insulator pins have porcelain bases.
Each sub-station along the line is equipped with a set of horn
type air-break pole switches, of original design. The 83-mile trans-
mission is thus sectioned, with outdoor switches at the ends of each
section. It is thus made possible to cut out a section of either cir-
cuit, for making repairs, without interrupting the service.
The telephone circuit is carried on the same poles, 5 feet below
the power wires, on pony glass insulators. Both the power wires
and the telephone wires are transposed and the service is entirely
successful.
There are sub-stations on the 33,000-volt line at Redlands.
Colton, Pomona, Puente, Shorb, Pasadena and Los Angeles. The
33,000-volt transmission line terminates at Los Angeles Station No.
86 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
I, where the Edison Company's original reserve steam plant of
2000 horse-power capacity is located. Here the transmission volt-
age is transformed to 2300 volts for general distribution and also
for transmission to Station No. 2, in the heart of the business dis-
trict. Station No. 2 is equipped with motor-generator sets for the
delivery of 500-volt direct current, and also for the operation of a
220-volt, three-wire Edison system. The station also contains two
storage batteries which are the largest west of Chicago. The first
has 140 cells and a maximum discharge capacity of 2700 amperes,
and a rating of 1100 amperes on a three-hour discharge. The second
has 140 cells and a maximum discharge capacity of 3500 amperes,
and a rating of 1300 amperes on a three-hour discharge. These
batteries are used separately or combined, as desired. They float
on the 220-volt system, and, in addition to carrying the peak load,
prevent possible interruptions in the service due to short circuits
on the transmission system.
Station No. 3, which has recently been placed in service, is a
combination sub-station and steam auxiliary power plant, and in this
latter respect is superseding Station No. 1. The sub-station is
designed for four sets of double bus-bars for handling 60,000, 30,-
000, 15,000 and 2300 volts respectively, each set being on a separate
floor. The 60,000-volt section will be the terminus of the 116-mile
transmission from the new 30,000-horse-power hydro-electric plant
now being built on the Kern River. The 33,000-volt line from the
Santa Ana and Mill Creek plants now runs into the station, and the
current is transformed to 15,000 volts for transmission to Station
No. 2, and also to three new 2300-volt distributing sub-stations in
the residence sections of the city. In addition to the sub-station ap-
paratus there is a large steam generating plant and two 2000-
kilowatt, 2300-volt, 3-phase, 50-cycle, steam turbo-alternator units.
A new 30,000-volt line, carried on steel poles, connects Station
No. 3 with a sub-station at Inglewood, where the current is trans-
formed to 17,000 volts for the operation of the system of the United
Electric Gas and Power Company, recently acquired by the Edison
Electric Company.
MT. WHITNEY.
In June, 1899, the plant of the Mt. Whitney Power Company,
on the Kaweah River, was put into operation. Water is diverted,
as shown in Fig. 11, from the East Fork of the Kaweah River, and
conveyed for nearly 5 miles in a wooden flume along the precipitous
side of the cation, shown in Fig. 12, to the forebay. Sand boxes
and waste gates are provided at intervals.
Fig. 13. The Pipe Line of the Mt. Whitney Plant, looking down to
Power House.
Fig. 14. Interior of the Mt. Whitney Power House, looking South-
easterly.
Fig. 15. Interior of the Mt. Whitney Power House, looking North-
easterly.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 87
The pressure pipe is 50 inches in diameter at the forebay,
tapers to 24 inches in the first 50 feet, and to 20 inches in the re-
maining 3270 feet. It was laid without horizontal bends, as shown
in Fig. 13, and is firmly anchored as well as buried in a trench.
This pipe was provided with air valves, but the customary receiver
at the bottom was omitted and the pipe terminated in branch cast-
ings of carefully designed internal diameter, so that the flow of the
water should be gradually accelerated as it approached the nozzle
tip. This design is now accepted as standard practice in hydraulics.
The pressure at the power house is 565 pounds per square inch,
corresponding to 1300 feet head, and the velocity of the water issu-
ing from the nozzle is over 3 miles per minute. The interior of the
power house, shown in Figs. 14 and 15, is noticeable for its compact,
logical arrangement.
The generating units are like those installed in the Blue Lakes
plant, having only two bearings, with the water wheel mounted on
the extended end of the generator shaft overhanging one of the
bearings, and a flywheel mounted on the other end of the shaft
overhanging the other bearing.
The water wheels are of the tangential type, and were the first
to be equipped with ellipsoidal buckets, Fig. 16. They are driven
by a single jet of water at a speed of 514 revolutions per minute, and
regulated by means of a hand-operated cut-off hood, Fig. 17, de-
flecting a part or all of the jet away from the water-wheel buckets,
as may be required. The wear on the deflector shoe is shown in
Fig. 18.
There are three 440-volt, 3-phase, 60-cycle generators rated at
450 kilowatts, and two 125-volt exciter units rated at 15 kilowatts,
at 1050 revolutions per minute. The exciter units are belt-driven
from pulleys on the flywheel ends of the generator shafts.
Cables are run in ducts under the floor to the marble switch-
board, and thence to the 500-kilowatt, oil-insulated, air-cooled static
transformers, which step-up the pressure from 440 to 17,300 volts
for transmission. The high-tension wires pass through fused
switches to the lightning arresters, which are in a separate building,
and thence 41 miles to Tulare and 42 miles to Porterville. The
single circuit transmission is 3-phase. Electric power is sold for
operating pumps for irrigating, and has superseded steam and
crude-oil engines.
This plant was completed in nine months from the time of
beginning work.
In 1902, the transformers were moved from within the power
house to a row of separate concrete cells outside, to guard against
88 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
possible accident. The flywheels also were removed from the gen-
erating units.
Some interesting studies on jets of water under high pressure,
begun at the Blue Lakes plant, were further pursued at this plant.
Figs. 19, 20 and 21 show, respectively, a jet at the Blue Lakes plant
of 1897, a Jet at tne Mt- Whitney plant of 1899 and a jet at the
Snoqualmie Falls plant, in Washington, installed in 1900.
In 1904, the Mt. Whitney Power Company built a second
power house called Mt. Whitney No. 2, using water from the
Middle Fork of the Kaweah River conducted through a ditch nearly
10 miles long to a 40-inch riveted steel pipe. A head of 360 feet
is utilized to operate turbines driving 3-phase generators.
MILL CREEK NO. 2.
In 1898, the demands upon the original Redlands plant became
so great that a second plant, known as Mill Creek No. 2, was built
further up the canon, and so located that water from its tail-race is
taken directly into the intake of the first plant and used again to
generate power.
This second plant was put in operation in September, 1899.
It contained two 250-kilowatt revolving-field, 3-phase generators,
driven at 375 revolutions per minute and delivering 50-cycle current
at 1 1,500 volts pressure. At that time they were the highest voltage
alternating current generators in use on the Pacific Coast.
The water way consists of 21 flumes, 6 tunnels and about 2.\
miles of concrete pipe.
Its capacity is 10 second feet at a grade of 0.2 of a foot per
100 feet. The concrete pipe is covered with from 2 to 3 feet of
earth. At the end of the intake tunnel and first flume there is a
large sand trap with five settling basins for clarifying the water. A
fall of 627 feet is utilized in the pressure main, the water passing
down through 141 1 feet of 18-inch riveted steel pipe laid in a trench
and buried. This pipe terminates in a steel Y-casting with three
outlets, two large ones leading to the generating units, and one small
one leading to the exciter units. The pipe is equipped with blow-
offs and air valves, and has an air chamber located near the power
house. Each branch of the pipe leads to a single deflecting nozzle.
Each of the two generating units consisted of a 61-inch tangential
water wheel direct-connected to a 250-kilowatt revolving-field, 3-
phase generator, which delivered 50-cycle current at 11,500 volts
directly to the line. Each was a three-bearing unit mounted on a
single base. The two exciter units are 30-kilowatt two-bearing
Fig. 16. The Ellipsoidal Buckets on a iooo H. P. Water Wheel at the
Mt. Whitney Plant. After More Than a Year of Use.
Fig. ij. The Stream Deflector at the Mt. Whitney Plant Deflect-
ing iooo H. P. into the Tail-Race.
Fig. 18. Worm Deflector Shoes at the Mt. Whitney Power Plant.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 89
units, the 22-inch tangential water wheels being overhung on the
exciter shafts.
The transmission line joined that from the Redlands plant
(Mill Creek No. 1), and extended thence to Riverside, a distance
of about 23 miles. It is now connected to the 33,000-volt trans-
mission to Los Angeles, operated by the Edison Electric Co. This
plant was built with the idea of adding to it at a later date. The
addition is now complete and is called Mill Creek No. 3, and is
described later.
TRUCKEE RIVER.
In October, 1900, a 2000-horse-power plant on the Truckee
River was completed. This plant uses 300 second feet of water,
diverted from the Truckee River by a timber-crib dam, and con-
veyed in a canal 600 feet long and a pine flume 8600 feet long to
a wooden penstock. Water flows to the wheels through two 72-
inch redwood stave pipes 160 feet long. The maximum head is 84^
feet.
There are two pairs of 27-inch horizontal turbines. Each
pair is rated at 1400 horse power at 400 revolutions per minute,
and is direct-connected through a leather-link coupling to a 750-
kilowatt, 3-phase, 500-volt generator. There are two 22-J-kilowatt
exciter units driven by individual turbines at 975 revolutions per
minute.
The current is stepped-up from 500 volts to 22,000 volts by
six 250-kilowatt, oil-insulated, air-cooled transformers, and is
transmitted on a double 3-phase transmission line, 33 miles long,
to Virginia City. This plant was built to supply power and light
to the Comstock Mines and it has been very successful.
COLGATE.
One of the most widely known plants on the Pacific Coast is
the Colgate plant, which was built in 1899, by the Yuba Electric
Power Company, to provide means for meeting the demands made
upon their Browns Valley plant. Colgate No. 1 was built on the
north bank of the North Yuba River, at the Missouri Bar trail
crossing. Five thousand horse power of electrical machinery was
installed and current was transmitted to Sacramento. In June,
1900, the Yuba Electric Power Company and the Nevada County
Electric Company were merged into the Bay Counties Power Com-
pany, and work was commenced on a large addition to Colgate No.
1 and a transmission 140 miles long to Oakland.
90 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
In the Colgate plant we have a demonstration of the economy
of doing things on a large scale. The power house is an example
of the long, narrow type with the generating units arranged along
one side, as appears in Fig. 2.2., and a separate tail-race for each
water wheel.
There are in the Colgate plant three 2000-kilowatt inductor-
type generators, which were, when installed, the largest on the
Pacific Coast. There are also three 900-kilowatt and one 750-kilo-
watt of the same type, making a total of 9450-kilowatts normal
generator capacity. All the generators are direct-connected by
leather-link couplings to their respective tangential water-wheel
units.
The exciter unit consists of a direct-current generator, a tan-
gential water wheel and a 3-phase induction motor, coupled to-
gether. The induction motor is connected to the low-tension bus-
bars and normally floats on the system. Should the nozzle of the
water wheel accidentally get clogged, the induction motor would
take power from the bus-bars and keep the exciter going. This has
occurred and so quietly as to be unnoticed by the station attendant.
This excellent scheme has become standard practice.
There are eight transmission circuits radiating from the Colgate
power house, carrying current at various voltages. One of the
circuits crosses the American River with a span of 684 feet, the
wires being arranged in a hexagon. The line most worthy of at-
tention is the one reaching 140 miles to Oakland, and designed to
carry 60,000 volts. This "Bay Line" has been operating at from
40,000 to 55,000 volts for the past 3 years, the voltage being raised
as the load has increased, and will be further raised to 60,000 volts.
It consists of two complete 3-wire, 3-phase circuits on separate pole
lines 25 feet apart.
One circuit is of No. 00 medium hard-drawn copper, the other
is No. 0000 7-strand aluminum cable. A porcelain insulator, 11
inches in diameter, was designed especially for this transmission.
There are several interesting long spans at river crossings. The
125-foot masts at Vernon, where the line crosses the Sacramento
River, are shown in Fig. 23. This span of No. 00 hard^drawn
copper is 800 feet long and has a sag of 27 feet. Sticks of Oregon
pine, 20 feet long, were inserted in the guy lines for insulation.
The most remarkable feature of the "Bay Line" is the spanning
of Carquinez Straits, Fig. 24. The length of this span, the longest
in the world, is 4227 feet, and current is carried on three of the four
|-inch stranded steel cables, one being kept as a spare. The cables
are anchored at each end in heavy concrete blocks. They rest in
Fig. 19. A Jet at the Blue Lakes Plant of 1897.
Fig. 20. A Jet of Water at the Mt. Whitney Power Plant — li
Fig. 21. Jet From the Needle Nozzle at the Snoqualmie Falls Power
Plant, Washington, in 1900.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 91
grooved lignum-vitse rollers supported in a row on regular line insu-
lators, and are supported on special steel towers.
The pull on each cable at its anchorage is about 12 tons, and
special strain insulators were designed to hold the cable and in-
sulate it at the same time.
The two transmission circuits are joined at the north tower of
the Carquinez span and separated again on the southerly shore.
The two transmission circuits are carried on a single line of 60-
foot square poles through Oakland to the sub-station at Piedmont.
This sub-station is connected to the Grove Street sub-station, which
is the terminus in Oakland of another long-distance transmission
line reaching from the Standard Electric power house at Electra
to Oakland, San Jose and San Francisco.
VOLTA.
In November, 1901, the 3000-horse-power plant of the North-
ern California Power Co., at Volta, Shasta County, was put into
operation. Water is gathered from Galpin Creek, Berry Creek
and Battle Creek, and conveyed through ditches to Mill Creek,
from which it is diverted and then conveyed through 3400 feet of
ditch to a reservoir at the head of the pipe line. This reservoir
stores enough water to carry the full load of the station for about
6 hours.
The pressure pipe consists of 800 feet of wood stave pipe and
6000 feet of steel pipe, part riveted and part lap welded. The pipe
terminates in a 30-inch, lap-welded steel distributor with cast-
steel fittings, and is equipped with six automatic air relief valves
suitably housed to prevent freezing in winter.
The power house contains three 750-kilowatt hydro-electric
units, each consisting of a tangential water wheel driven at 400
revolutions per minute by a single jet of water under 1204 feet
head, connected by means of a leather-link coupling to a 500-volt,
3-phase, 60-cycle generator. The speed of these units is regu-
lated by means of Lombard type-F governors, which deflect the
nozzles. There are two 22^-kilowatt exciters, driven at 975 rev-
olutions per minute by means of water under 400 feet head, brought
to the power house from a spring through an entirely independent
pipe line and hydraulic development.
The transformers are separated, by a fire wall, from the gen-
erators, and stand on a floor depressed below the level of the gen-
erator floor. There are three sets and one spare. They are rated
at 350 kilowatts each, are oil-insulated, air-cooled, and raise the pres-
9
92 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
sure to 22,000 volts for transmission. The high-tension taps are
delta-connected.
The transmission line consists of two 3-phase circuits of No. 4
B. & S. gage bare copper wire on a single-pole line. The insulators
are of glass and are supported on eucalyptus wood pins treated with
linseed oil. The extreme length of the original transmission was
99 miles.
Electricity is supplied to the copper mines near Keswick and to
more than a dozen inland towns within a radius of 100 miles from
the power house.
The company has built another power house 20 miles north of
Volta to utilize the waters of Cow Creek under 1196 feet head, for
developing about 4000 horse power. This power house was com-
pleted in the latter part of 1903. From it two 3-phase circuits run
to Bully Hill, where they connect with the line from the Volta
power house, while a single circuit runs down the Pitt River to
Kennett, and thence to Keswick, where it also connects with the
line from Volta.
ELECTRA.
The plant built on the Mokelumne River, at Electra, by the
Standard Electric Company, is one of the largest and most ex-
pensive plants on the Pacific Coast. The builders took so much
pains to have everything of the very best that it is difficult to say
just when the plant was finished. Water is taken from the Blue
Lakes water system and is conveyed through two 30-inch pressure
pipes down to the power house, where a head of 1467 feet is ob-
tained. This is slightly more than is used at the San Joaquin plant.
The power house is a steel frame structure, covered with gal-
vanized iron. The pressure pipe lies along one side of the power
house and has 450 branches leading under the floor to the water
wheels. The individual tail-races continue in the same direction
to the other side of the power house and join at 450 a common tail-
race leading to the river:
The generator room, shown in Fig. 25, contains five 2000-kilo-
watt, 3-phase, 60-cycle, 2200-volt, inductor-type generators, each
driven through a leather-link coupling at 240 revolutions per minute,
by a pair of tangential water wheels mounted within one housing.
Cables are laid in a subway, extending the length of the generator
room, to the switchboard gallery at one end. The two exciter units
are located in an alcove. Each is driven by a tangential water wheel,
and also is direct-connected to an induction motor. From the
switchboard the current is conducted to the step-up transformers,
Fig. 22. Interior of the Colgate Plant.
Fig. 23. Masts 125 Feet High for the 8oo-foot Span Across the
Sacramento River at Verona.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 93
located in a separate room, where the pressure is raised from 2200
to 55,000 volts for transmission.
The transmission line, consisting of three |--inch, 37-strand
aluminum cables supported on special high-tension insulators, ex-
tending from the power house 154 miles to San Francisco, is one
of the most interesting in the State.
It was designed for a potential of 60,000 volts and has been
in use for the last 2 years, delivering current at pressures ranging
from 30,000 to 55,000 volts ; the pressure being raised with the in-
creasing sales of current.
This is the only long-distance transmission that has reached
San Francisco, the largest market for power and light in the State.
The most notable feature of the transmission is the San Joaquin
River crossing, shown in Fig. 26. The aluminum cables are sup-
ported on four rectangular steel towers, 150 feet high and resting
on piles. The longest span is 618 feet. Since the absorption of the
Standard Electric Company by the California Gas and Electric
Corporation, the plant at Electra has been running in parallel with
the other plants of the corporation's system and the line has been
connected in with the 140-mile Colgate-Oakland transmission,
known as the "Bay Counties" line.
LITTLE BEAR RIVER POWER HOUSE, NEAR ALTA.
This plant went into operation in November, 1902. It util-
izes a fall of 660 feet in the main Placer County ditch of the South
Yuba Water Company. An abandoned reservoir was repaired, and
is used to store 2,160,000 cubic feet of water at the head of the
pipe line.
The pressure pipe is 5380 feet long, of flange-steel plates, hot
riveted throughout. It tapers in diameter from 38 inches at the
top to 36 inches at the bottom, and varies in thickness from T3g- inch
at the top to f inch at the bottom. The pipe is provided at the
bottom with a 37-inch outside screw gate valve, and terminates
outside the power house in a 48-inch riveted-steel distributor.
Curved laterals lead the water to the turbines.
There are two hydro-electric units installed at present. These
consist of a high head turbine direct-connected to a 1000-kilowatt
revolving-field, 500-volt, 3-phase generator. They run at 400 rev-
olutions per minute. Cables are laid in glazed-tile pipe under the
cement floor, and lead from the generators to the switchboard and
thence to the transformers.
The transformers are 375-kilowatt, oil-insulated, air-cooled
94 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
type and, being delta-connected, raise the voltage to 16,000 for
transmission 61 miles to Sacramento.
This plant runs in parallel with the two others built by the same
company, one at Newcastle and the other at Auburn.
The property of the South Yuba Water Company and that of
the Central California Electric Company has been acquired by the
California Gas and Electric Corporation.
ONTARIO.
The 1500-horse-power plant of the Ontario Power Company
was put into operation in December, 1902. The waters of the San
Antonio River are conducted through a 30-inch cement-pipe con-
duit to a cement forebay 694 feet above the power house. There
are four inverted siphons of riveted steel pipe in the gravity water
way and the cement pipe passes through ten tunnels, the longest of
which is 560 feet x 5 feet x 6 feet.
The pressure pipe is 24-inch riveted steel pipe at the forebay
and 20-inch lap-welded tubing at the lower end where it joins a
steel distributor, from which three 12-inch pipes lead to the water-
wheel nozzles. Each pipe is fitted with a slow-motion valve with
by-pass and each water wheel has a separate tail-race.
The power house is of granite, 60 x 30 feet, with a galvanized
iron roof on steel trusses.
The hydro-electric generating units, shown in Fig 27, are of
recent design. Each consists of a tangential water wheel, with
ellipsoidal buckets, mounted on the same shaft with a 250-kilowatt
generator and provided with a single needle regulating deflecting
nozzle. There are three bearings and a single base-plate. The unit
makes 375 revolutions per minute under an effective head of 687
feet, and delivers 3-phase current at 50 cycles and 11 50 volts.
The principal transmission of power is to Ontario, at the gen-
erator pressure. The surplus power is sold to the San Gabriel
Electric Company, and transformers are provided for stepping the
pressure up to 16,000 volts for their use.
Power is principally used to drive irrigating pumps and for
lights in the vicinity of Ontario.
MILL CREEK NO. 3.
Early in 1903, the Edison Electric Company, of Los Angeles,
completed a noteworthy plant, known as Mill Creek No. 3. This
is an addition to Mill Creek No. 2, so far as the power house is
concerned ; otherwise it is distinct. Water is taken from Mill Creek
pq
•-
u
Fig. 25. Interior of the Electra Power House.
Fig. 26. The San Joaquin River Crossing.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 95
above the intake of plant No. 2, and is conducted through a covered
water way to the forebay. This water way has five inverted
siphons, the longest of which is 2150 feet. There are 25,000 feet
of concrete pipe, 31 inches inside diameter and 3 inches thick. There
are nineteen tunnels, 4 feet wide by 6 feet high -and ranging in
length from 112 feet to 1067 feet.
At the forebay is a series of settling basins to clarify the water.
The pressure pipe is 26 and 24 inches in diameter, and terminates
at the bottom in branches leading to the nozzles. The head util-
ized is i960 feet, which is higher than any other electric power
plant now operating in this country.
The water passes through needle regulating deflecting nozzles
to the water wheels.
The walls of the power house are of concrete, the roof is of
corrugated iron on steel trusses and has an anti-condensation lining.
Each large unit consists of a tangential water wheel and a
750-kilowatt, 50-cycle, 3-phase, 750-volt generator, with a single
shaft supported by three bearings on a single bed-plate. Fig. 28
shows one of the water wheels after more than a year's service.
The transformers in this plant raise the pressure from 750 to
33,000 volts for transmission to Los Angeles, and are the first 3-
phase transformers of large size installed on the Pacific Coast.
DE SABLA.
Some of the most advanced ideas in hydro-electric power plant
practice are embodied in the de Sabla plant, on Butte Creek, which
the Valley Counties Power Company began operating in October,
1903.
Water from Big Butte Creek is conveyed about 10 miles in a
ditch and discharged into a regulating reservoir, which is at an
elevation of 1560 feet above the power house. From this reservoir,
two 30-inch steel pressure pipe lines conduct the water 6000 feet
down to the power house.
The first pipe line terminates in two branches leading to the
2000-kilowatt units, which went into operation in October, 1903,
and the second line terminates in the nozzle of the 5000-kilowatt
unit, which went into operation in September, 1904.
A new form of hydraulically operated piston gate valve was
installed in each of the branch pipes. Their construction is such
that when full open there is an unobstructed passageway of uniform
diameter, so the hydraulic losses in this gate are reduced to nothing
more than the friction of an equal length of straight pipe.
96 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
They are operated by pressure water from the pipe line, and the
manner of admitting it to the operating piston is such that too rapid
closing or opening of the valve is an impossibility.
The 2000-kilowatt generators are like those installed in the
Colgate power house, and each is driven at a speed of 240 revolu-
tions per minute by a tangential ellipsoidal water wheel of 3700
horse power, mounted on the extended end of the generator shaft
and overhanging one bearing. Each complete hydro-electric unit
has two bearings only.
The 5000-kilowatt generating unit shown in Fig. 29 represents
the highest type in use at present.
It delivers 3-phase, 60-cycle current at a pressure of 2400 volts
and is driven at 400 revolutions per minute by a Doble tangential
water wheel. This is the most powerful single water-wheel yet con-
structed, and it is capable of delivering 8000 horse power from the
single jet of water, 6 inches in diameter, which issues from the needle
regulating deflecting nozzle at a velocity of approximately 20,000 feet
per minute, and impinges upon the steel buckets of the water wheel.
The general design of this remarkable unit is shown in Fig. 30.
It is a two-bearing revolving-field type, the water wheel being
mounted on the extended end of the shaft and overhanging the
bearing. The shaft is of fluid-compressed, hydraulic-forged, 3^ per
cent, nickel steel, oil-tempered and annealed, with an axial hole.
It is 20 inches in diameter in the middle portion and 16 inches 111
the bearings, which are 60 inches long, ring-oiling, and water-
cooled. The rubbing speed in these bearings is higher than has
been used heretofore. The water wheel consists of a rolled steel
disk, machine-finished all over, fastened to the end of the shaft in an
original and superior manner and having cast-steel ellipsoidal
buckets securely bolted to its periphery. Every bucket is accurately
fitted to the disk and all hydraulic surfaces are ground smooth and
true, and the wheel is carefully balanced, both statically and dynam-
ically. The nozzle is of the needle regulating deflecting type,
moved by a vertical water-wheel governor. This unit has, in
actual service, been delivering from 5000 to 5500 kilowatts almost
continuously since September, 1904.
The exciter set consists of a direct-current generator, an in-
duction motor and a tangential water wheel, all on the same shaft ;
supported by three bearings on a single bed-plate.
Current from the generators passes the marble switchboard
and, at present, is raised from generator pressure to 55,000 volts for
transmission. A new type of 4-break, 60,000-volt oil switch has
been installed in this plant, each switch being located in a separate
Fig. 27. Interior of the Ontario Power Company Plant.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT, ETC. 97
fireproof compartment, and each set of three switches being mechani-
cally connected so that they are opened or closed simultaneously.
Current from this plant has been delivered in Calaveras County,
over the lines of the California Gas and Electric Corporation, a
distance of 378 miles from the power house. This is the record, at
present, for long-distance transmission.
AMERICAN RIVER.
One of the most recent plants, located on the American River,
utilizes a head of 575 feet, and develops 3000 kilowatts. About 7
miles of open gravity water way has been constructed to convey
158 second feet of water to the penstock. Two 36-inch pressure
pipes lead down to the power house and terminate in branches
leading to the nozzles of the tangential water wheels. The power
house is of concrete with steel roof trusses and a slate roof.
The hydro-electric generating units are of the two-bearing type
with a tangential water wheel at each end of the shaft. Hollow
nickel-steel forged shafts are used. Three-phase current is de-
livered at 2200 volts, 60 cycles, and is transformed to 30,000, 40,000
50,000 or 60,000 volts for transmission, depending upon the connec-
tions. The transformers are 625 kilowatts each, oil-insulated,
water-cooled, and are located in a sparate fireproof building. A
set of horn-type air-break switches are located in each of the two
main transmission lines which lead from the power house, one to
Folsom and the other to Stockton.
The transmission conductors are 7-stranded aluminum cables,
equivalent in carrying capacity to No. 1 B. & S. gage copper wire.
Power is delivered to numerous mines along the line of the trans-
mission, and in Folsom and Stockton.
CONCLUSION.
Mention might be made of a number of smaller plants that have
been installed at various places throughout the State, but the art
of bringing to market the power of California mountain streams
is fully set forth in the plants described.
The art has grown from the rough engineering period, as
instanced in many of the pioneer plants, to a high plane, represent-
ing the very best in design and construction.
In the early days the tendency in hydraulic work pertaining to
electrical generation was to follow other lines of engineering older
established. For instance, the idea of a receiver, or distributor,
larger in diameter than the pipe, and which has since been discarded
98 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
in the well-designed plants, was taken directly from steam engineer-
ing practice.
The tendency is toward larger plants, with larger generating
units ; higher hydraulic pressures and more expensive and reliable
water conduits, tunnels preferred ; longer transmission lines and
higher voltages, with more expensive and reliable line construction
and insulators.
Up to the present time, the transmission line has proved to be
the weakest link in the chain of continuous and uniform service,
and to this feature it is essential that much more attention shall
be given by transmission companies.
The undeveloped water powers of the State which can be made
available for commercial transmission far exceed in energy all
the powers now utilized, and as the market for power is rapidly
increasing and the business is a profitable one, we predict that many
more plants will be constructed in the near future.
Fig. 29. 8000 H. P. Hydro-Electric Generating Unit in the de Sabla
Power House.
WEAK POINTS IN LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION. 99
WEAK POINTS IN LONG-DISTANCE ELECTRIC TRANS-
MISSION.
By James C. Bennett. Member of the Technical Society of the Pacific
Coast.
[Read before the Autumnal Meeting of the Society, December 2, 1904.*]
In the excellent papers to which we have been listening we
have been shown, quite conclusively, the many advantages of trans-
mitting electrical energy, generated at isolated stations, over long
distances and at high pressures. There have also been pointed out
some of the points in which we may expect improvements, which we
sincerely trust will not be long forthcoming. It may not be amiss,
at this time, however, to emphasize some of these weak points by
noticing their effects. Unfortunately, I have been unable to ac-
quaint myself with the conditions of other services than that of which
I shall speak, hence, my statements cannot be so broad as I should
wish them to be ; but, as the service to be considered is a continuous
one for the twenty-four hours of every day in the year, I think that
there have been very good opportunities for developing some of
the weakness of long-distance transmission.
The requirements to which I shall refer are those appertaining
to lead smelting. For the sake of better understanding the condi-
tions to be met, I shall outline the nature of such a service. There
are some motors used for running shop tools, crushing machinery,
etc., and required for but ten or twelve hours per day, which appli-
cations, being quite commonplace, require no further mention at
this time.
Next to these in importance are the installations for driving
the mechanical roasting furnaces. These furnaces, be it under-
stood, are in operation continuously, night and day, and the ore
contents are treated at such a degree of heat that they are almost
and in some instances quite sticky. It must be evident that, under
such conditions, it is very necessary that the operation be continuous,
as, by stopping the furnace, the loss due to the falling of tem-
perature to that of the atmosphere and its being again raised to the
working heat becomes an important item ; and, if the ore requires to
be carried at a sintering or sticky heat, there is still further loss in
breaking up, by hand, the agglomerated bed of ore. Thus, we can
readily see the necessity of a continuous supply of power for such
service.
* Manuscript received February 13, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
ioo ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The darkness, incident to stoppage of current at night, is also
of more significance than the simple fact that it becomes suddenly
dark, as will be more clearly shown when the other requirements
are outlined.
The most imperative demand for continuous current, however,
is that of the blowers which supply air to the blast furnaces. In
this service, it is absolutely necessary that the pressure of the blast
be always kept from falling to zero. Should it be allowed to do so,
either of two things is likely to result. In the event of a momentary
stoppage, as for a few seconds or a minute, there is great danger of
an explosion, due to the fact that, when the pressure is removed,
the combustible gases of the blast furnace at once extend backward
into the blast pipe, as this has become the direction of least resist-
ance ; and, when the pressure is again applied, there is formed a
violently explosive mechanical mixture of air and furnace gases,
which, on coming in contact with the molten contents of the furnace
at the tuyeres, ignites, and the resulting explosion naturally runs
back toward the blower as being the most prolific source of oxygen.
The result of the explosion is a damaged blast pipe or blower, or
both, beside the danger of injuries to workmen. On the other hand,
should the pressure unexpectedly drop to and remain at zero, or
even but a few ounces below the normal pressure, for a considerable
length of time — say eight or ten hours or more — the molten contents
of the furnace will freeze, that is, will cool and solidify, thereby
forming a practically solid column of rock, which means that the
furnace must be taken apart and the "charge" picked and broken
out by hand — an operation requiring probably a week or more of
work of the most laborious nature.
From this sketch will be seen the reasons for so strongly insist-
ing on a thoroughly reliable supply of power. It is not really to be
wondered at that this necessity is not fully appreciated by those who
are engaged in furnishing the power, for, while some of their
representatives frequently call on their various customers, it is prob-
able that, by reason of the seeming natural perversity of things,
they have very seldom, if ever, been on the ground at the moment of
interruption, and they thus have had little or no opportunity to come
to a full realization of the importance of the matter in the eyes of the
consumer.
Again, referring to the illustration in question, let us notice
the effect, in the blower room, of an interruption of current. For-
tunately, for economy's sake, it is necessary to keep steam up to
working pressure at all times, regardless of the possibility of shut-
downs of electric current, to meet the demands of heating, etc. ;
WEAK POINTS IN LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION. 101
hence the expense of keeping up steam pressure is not in this case
directly chargeable to the unreliability of the current. However,
in view of the shut-downs which occur from time to time, it is seen
to be necessary to be prepared for them. On taking up the question
of electrically driving the blowers, there are two principal points
presented for solution. The one is, as just mentioned, that of in-
suring against a sudden total absence of pressure in the blast pipe ;
the other is that of occasionally changing the blast pressure or,
synonymously, the speed of the blower.
The first problem is solved very safely by installing a small
auxiliary blower, driven by a direct-connected steam engine. This
blower has only sufficient capacity to maintain a pressure of say
one or two ounces per square inch — in short, enough to prevent a
backward flow of the furnace gases, should the main blower suddenly
stop. This unit is run continuously, day and night, usually at slow
speed, and, in case of an unexpected stoppage, is speeded up to its
full capacity until a large reserve steam unit can be got in operation.
Owing to the uncertainty as to the moment at which the current
may cease, it becomes necessary to keep the engine of this large unit
constantly warm by means of steam supplied through a small by-
pass from the main steam line, as it is of such size that, were it
necessary to heat it up at each call, there would be a great delay
just at the time when every moment is of the most vital importance.
A prominent characteristic of the many stoppages of current is
the time of their occurrence. On referring to records, it is to be ob-
served that by far the greater number take place at night. Mechan-
ically, this should not be so; from which I incline to the belief that
its principal cause must be one that renders its occurrence well-nigh
unavoidable, viz, that men do not maintain their highest standard
of ability and reliability at night as during the daytime. Night is,
of course, as we all know, not a natural time for man to be expected
to be fully up to his highest standard of mental activity, hence the
reason for describing the cause as "well-nigh unavoidable."
Coincident with these nocturnal stoppages is the sudden
plunging of the entire plant into utter darkness, for it is almost cer-
tain to receive its lighting energy from the same source as its power,
hence the lights must simultaneously suffer the same experience as
the motors.
Picture to yourselves, if possible, the conditions existing in a
large station of a city fire department at the time of a midnight
alarm and imagine the effect if all the lights in the building were ex-
tinguished just as the alarm sounded, leaving but one or two oil
lanterns burning in lieu of the many brilliant lights so suddenly
102 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
darkened, and you will have before you a picture partially portraying
the conditions existing in a smelter's blower room at the time of a
night stoppage of current. There are four things which require
to be done immediately — I might well say instantly — and in exactly
the order named. Close the blast gate on the blower just stopping,
speed up the auxiliary blower, get the reserve steam-driven blower
under way, and open its blast gate. The matter of closing and
opening the blast gates may not, to the casual listener, be taken
as a task of any magnitude ; but I would ask you to consider that
the blower gates are from 24 to 36 inches in diameter, and that
it taxes severely the strength of one man to operate one of these
gates. I mention that these operations must be performed in a cer-
tain order, to show another place where the confusion, incident to
the sudden darkness, may lead to serious consequences, as changing
the order of their execution is likely to produce the same result
that has been attributed to sudden drop of pressure.
The only advantage which a daytime stoppage has over one at
night, is its absence of the sudden darkness, for day or night the
operation is the same; and, as almost every blower room that I
have visited shows the result of growth by its crowded conditions,
the difficulties attendant upon rapid movements about the floor are
necessarily increased by reason of being obliged to follow indirect
paths from one point to another, hence another possibility of confu-
sion among the workmen, even though they may be quite familiar
with the locations of the various machines.
I mentioned, a moment ago, that there are two problems pre-
sented for solution in considering an electrical installation for the
purpose of driving the blowers. The first I have just dwelt upon ;
the second is of interest, probably, mechanically rather than in the
light of the present consideration. It may, however, be worthy of
mention here. The requisite blast pressure varies, from time to
time, over a rather wide range — some ten to fifteen ounces per
square inch — and it is, therefore, necessary to provide for changing
the speed of the blower. As the variable-speed induction motor,
owing to the wide differences between its various speeds, is not well
suited to the case in question, it becomes necessary to find other
means, which has been done by providing the regular constant-
speed induction motor with a number of pulleys, of diameters vary-
ing by one or two inches, and fitted to the motor shaft with feather-
way and set-screw. Thus they can be slipped on or off the motor
with comparative ease and with considerable rapidity, the difference
in the length of belt being taken up by means of an extra-long
sliding base. The small auxiliary steam-driven blower is then used
WEAK POINTS IN LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION. 103
to carry the slight variations of pressure, and, when they become
too great to be easily taken care of by the small unit, the motor
pulley is changed.
Having dwelt at some length on the difficulties encountered by
the consumer of electric power, who must have a continuous supply
of current throughout the entire twenty-four hours of the day, I
would say a word or two of the points upon which improvements
could still be made, and where it is extremely desirable that they
should be. From what has been said of the effects of even momen-
tary stoppages of current, it must be evident that the claim of the
producers that they can switch from one line to another, in the event
of a break-down on the first one, in about one minute's time, is not
sufficient to give really satisfactory service to such customers as
have just been described ; for the one minute, necessary to make the
change, is so long a time that the motors running have ample oppor-
tunity to drop in speed to such a rate that, when the power is again
supplied, it can hardly fail to either blow their fuses or burn them
internally. Hence, the effect is no better that when there is a
"short" of the same duration. If notice be given beforehand of
an approaching shutting off of the current, the result is not quite
so aggravating, as the men in charge of the various motors about the
plant can be warned to watch for a stoppage, and so, as soon as it
occurs, they can throw out their switches and thus protect the
motors ; but when there is a "short" it is almost safe to say that the
fuses on every motor on the plant will require to be replaced. The
thought occurrs to me that some of my hearers may be inclined to
believe that the exacting requirements of smelter service have been
somewhat exaggerated, but in support of my statements I would say
that many years of experience have conclusively proved the abso-
lute necessity of having all vital parts of the power plant in dupli-
cate. Consequently, in visiting any smelting plant, of even mod-
erate size, it will be at once seen that boilers, pipes — both steam and
water — engines, pumps, blowers, etc., are all so arranged that, in
case of accident of any kind, the reserve can be at once placed in
commission. It is no uncommon thing for a smelter to run for ten
or fifteen years without at any time entirely closing down the power
plant.
There are, then, two principal points, the importance of which
I would urge upon the electrical engineers. The one is that the
power, even with previous notification, should never be shut off
for trivial repairs ; when such things come to your attention, make
every possible effort to conserve them so that, when a shut-down
is made, there mav be a number of these small matters attended to
io4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
at the one time. The second is the necessity of developing a means
of switching from one line to another instantaneously — in the strict-
est sense of the word.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. R. W. Myers. — Mr. Bennett's paper shows the impor-
tance of transmitting electrical power to the consumer without any
interruption in the service whatever.
Taking into consideration the transmitting of electric power
from a power house one hundred or more miles away, through a
wooded and rough mountainous country, where line troubles are
of frequent occurrence, no small problem presents itself.
The line troubles are eliminated, to a certain extent, by the
use of a double-pole line. In case of trouble, the current is switched
from one to the other. It sometimes happens that there is trouble
on both lines simultaneously, or that the generating units or other
apparatus at the power house suddenly give trouble, requiring the
shutting down of the entire plant.
It is evident that we must have, at the sub-station, a reserve
to take care of all emergencies such as are likely to occur even
with the most approved methods of transmitting electrical energy.
What is required in Mr. Bennett's case is to supply a reserve
of sufficient capacity to take the load immediately after the main
supply is shut off, and to run all machinery long enough to get
things in shape for a complete shut-down, or until the main supply
of current is turned on. The length of time, during which this
reserve would have to supply current, would probably not be more
than one or two hours.
To supply this current, a reversible motor-generator set could
be utilized, consisting of a synchronous motor, running free on the
line, directly connected to a direct-current generator, which genera-
tor would charge a storage battery capable of running the same
generator as a motor for at least one or two hours. When the
main supply of current is cut off, the synchronous motor becomes an
alternating-current generator, being driven by the direct-current
motor, thus supplying the power to the different motors, lights,
etc., located in the vicinity of the sub-station.
This arrangement of a reserve unit could be made entirely
automatic, by the use of proper circuit-breakers, etc., the load being
thrown automatically on the reversible motor-generator immedi-
ately after the main supply is cut off.
The cost of current to run this motor-generator set would be
negligible ; in fact, the synchronous motor could be utilized as a
WEAK POINTS IN LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION. 105
compensator for leading or lagging current by varying the excita-
tion of its field. Arrangements could probably be made, with those
who supply the power, to furnish gratis the amount of power re-
quired to run the motor-generator set; they in return receiving
from you compensation in the form of leading or lagging currents,
which would greatly reduce the loss in the transmission line.
The installation of such a reserve would be more or less ex-
pensive, but, taking into consideration the fact that the maintenance
of a continuous supply of power is absolutely imperative, the relia-
bility it would assure would undoubtedly justify its installation.
106 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ENGINEERING AND THE LAW.
By Frank P. Medina, Member of the Technical Society of the Pacific
Coast.
/
[Read before the Autumnal Meeting of the Society, December 2, 1904.*]
Every society is naturally divided into two parts — into two
systems of institutions that differ most widely from each other.
These two sets of institutions may be called the operative and the
regulative. The former comprises all those social activities that ex-
press themselves in products or constructions — the agricultural,
manufacturing, and we may include the commercial. The latter,
besides other controlling agencies, includes the governmental-mili-
tary organization, the legislative, executive and judicial branches
of government, with all their ramifications.
This division of societies into two parts is coeval with their
existence. The division begins vaguely, and continues indistinct
for long periods. At first, the productive activities and the govern-
mental activities are closely commingled — the governmental part
may be said to absorb the other ; but in the course of social life the
division becomes more marked. Individuals are specialized into
producers and makers of things on one hand, and into regulators
of things on the other. Finally, there are established systems
definitely marked out — the operative and the regulative — each hav-
ing its own workers and its own machinery.
I wish to emphasize the reality of this social division. The
fact that, in our country, the same individuals are sometimes en-
gaged in activities appropriate to one of these divisions, and at
other times in those appropriate to the other, disguises the fact
of their existence as fundamentally different systems. Business
men, engineers, capitalists, become Senators, Congressmen, Presi-
dents. The State Senates and Assemblies, to say nothing of local
Boards of Supervisors and Boards of Public Works, are made up
of persons belonging to the operative division ; and all these people,
leaving the activities of the governmental class, return to their
private pursuits in the productive or allied class. Nevertheless,
the reality of the divisions is shown in their permanency, even in
those societies which have no written constitutions, and more clearly
in those that have. Besides, it is apparent that multitudes of indi-
viduals spend their lives exclusively in each division, as in the
army and navy, in the judiciary and the bar, on the one hand, and
* Manuscript received February 13, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
ENGINEERING AND THE LAW. 107
in the numberless producing and manufacturing interests on the
other. The divisions are real, and each system is becoming more
and more distinguished from the other as time goes on. The
coexistence of an operative and a regulative system is a universal
social characteristic.
Both these systems are the products of the wants and fears of
individuals. They are the expressions of human feelings — human
desires and aversions, human loves and hates, human hopes and
fears. Men gather into societies for the better satisfaction of their
wants, for the better protection of their lives. In seeking to satisfy
their desires, they have entered multitudinous forms of activity,
and these multitudinous forms, altogether unsuspected by those who
were creating them, became divided into the two general forms re-
ferred to.
The natural genesis of these two great social systems is a very
striking thing. No social compact ever produced it. Feelings,
individual human feelings, co-operating and conflicting, issued in
acts which were simply intended to satisfy those feelings. The
two systems are the resultants of these acts — the unforeseen, un-
intended and natural resultants. They abide because they are
necessary. Both are necessary to the satisfaction of the feelings of
human beings aggregated into societies.
But when I speak of feelings, I mean the whole range of man's
emotional nature — not the desires to achieve bodily satisfaction
alone, but to achieve satisfaction of all his sensations, emotions and
sentiments. Certain of these feelings drive their possessors to
productive activities ; others to regulative activities. The growth
of the one is dependent on that of the other. A sufficiently power-
ful regulating agency must always accompany the operative agency,
and the regulating agency has to be supported by a sufficiently
extended sustaining agency.
Enough has been said about the general aspects of the question
for the purposes of this paper. Let us now examine each of the
systems separately, and so bring into view their bearing on the sub-
ject— "Engineering and the Law."
Looking first at the operative system, which is meant to include
all activities that express themselves in material structures for the
satisfaction of human needs, we perceive, for the purposes of this
paper, that the activities, exerted by its members, create certain
relations among them. Their work is carried on by means of co-
operation. "I will do this for you, if you will do that for me."
Something is given for something received. This simple agree-
ment is the basis of the innumerable contractual relations which
10
io8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
characterize modern societies. The rise of the regime of contract
has gone on with the increase of industrial activity. Contrasting
the feudal system with the system of to-day, we are struck by the
radical change that this growth of contractual relations has created.
It has substituted a spirit of contract for one of status. We live
in an age of contract. The change has been accomplished by in-
creased freedom of the individual and his increased importance.
It has been a change beneficial to society and to the individual mem-
ber of society.
In passing, we must note that other relations, besides those
arising out of operative activities, have arisen, such as the relations
of parent and child, of husband and wife, of guardian and ward,
of master and servant. Now, all these relations have been affected
by the change, referred to, from the regime of status to that of con-
tract; and beneficially affected, as a comparison between the rights
and duties attending these relations in the past with those of the
present will show. All that it concerns us here to note, however,
is the existence of relations of different kinds, certain of which are
more or less permanent in their character, and create, in turn, cer-
tain relations between the individual and the society.
It is also to be noted that intercourse between societies arises
and produces relations which create rights and duties between them,
as they do between individuals.
Turning now to the regulative system, we note that it arises
from the need of defining and maintaining the relations above re-
ferred to. One of the necessities of social life is the establishment
of some degree of permanence of such relations. Beginning in a
vague sort of way, their forms unacknowledged and the powers and
liberties arising from them uncertain and barely felt, the relations
gradually, as social habits became more confirmed, acquired a greater
degree of stability. If one did something for another, he more fre-
quently received the return to which he was entitled. The mere
lapse of a short time became no longer a good cause for repudiating
obligations. Parents also began to feel the permanency of their
relations toward their children, and husbands toward their wives.
Masters and servants recognized, more clearly, rights and duties
toward each other, and all social relations began to take on a more
stable form.
This permanence among social relations is an equilibrium of the
mobile order. The various social institutions become closely inter-
related, so that a disturbance in one disturbs all. It is only by
some degree of permanence among individual relations that stable
social institutions become possible. Such an increase in perma-
ENGINEERING AND THE LAW. 109
nence naturally accompanies the change from the impulsive prim-
itive man to the deliberate man of civilization. A relation of ob-
ligation must continue to exist until that obligation is discharged.
Corresponding to this relation there must exist an appropriate
state of feeling. In other words, the sentiment of justice must be
present in some degree. When this sentiment becomes strong,
the permanency of the social relations becomes great. Growing intel-
ligence begins to take the relations into consciousness, and to realize
the importance of their stability, although it is only after ages of
social intercourse that this conscious recognition of social relations
takes place. For long periods such relations arise unconsciously
as the resultants of the activities of mankind in the pursuit of their
own private gratifications, and their increase in permanence is just
as unconsciously produced.
We see, then, the operative system comes from the need of
human sustentation ; the regulative system from the need of social
order. The activities of the former kind result in the production
of food, clothing, habitations, as well as works of art ; the activities
of the latter result primarily in the establishment of permanent
customs. The former activities create certain relations among the
actors, which have certain obligations belonging to them ; the latter
insist on the strict performance of these obligations, and the forms
that must be adopted in their fulfillment.
As time goes on, both these systems increase in mass, become
more varied within themselves, and, while becoming more clearly
defined from one another, are yet bound closer and closer together.
Originally confined to the production of food, clothing and
habitations, the activities of the former system have been extended
to the satisfaction of all kinds of needs. Within each group of
activities there has been going on a change which is essentially the
same in kind as the change in other groups. The change in the
food-producing activities, for instance, is from a simple, inexact,
inefficient way of doing things, to a complex, precise and efficient
way. The advent of the plow and the flail, inefficient as these in-
struments are, marked a step in the process. Weapons of the chase
increased in accuracy and efficiency. There is no need of tracing
the changes in detail. A glance at the massive, exact, efficient
food-producing machinery of to-day is sufficient.
The same change has taken place in the production of clothing.
Here the liberal arts have called forth activities in the most varied
ways. Spinning, weaving, dyeing — see the infinite variety into
which the need for clothing has driven man's activity. Note, also,
the improvements in machinery that have accompanied these
no ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
changes. Increase of mass, increase of variety, increase of definite-
ness — the same process throughout. A like variety is observable
in the products themselves; from the comparatively uniform dresses
of the past we see a change to clothing immensely varied in
texture, form and color. Along with the manufacture of clothing,
manufacture in general grew, arising in the same way and develop-
ing along exactly the same lines. The creation of habitations be-
gan in an uncertain sort of way by methods extremely inefficient,
and all being similar in modes and products. It is a long way from
the savage hut to the twenty-story steel building, but the route has
been along the same road that characterizes progress in general —
from a state of more or less undefined notions to one of scientific
exactness; from a single mode of accomplishing the desired object
to a multitude of modes ; from a vague simplicity in the products,
and an ill adaptation to the wants to be satisfied, to a definite com-
plexity and an almost perfect adaptation.
We are gradually coming to the pertinence of these remarks
to the subject of this paper — "Engineering and the Law." Mean-
time, let us note that the practice of barter arose, and that commerce
grew out of it. Note also that the growth of commerce out of barter
is also a change exactly like that which manufacture has undergone.
Complexity, definiteness, heterogeneity, have replaced simplicity,
vagueness, homogeneity, while the mass of activities engaged be-
came greater. All this time there has been a closer binding to-
gether of all these interests, as is obvious in the cases of manu-
facture and commerce ; and here, also, we must think of the growth
of the higher emotions and sentiments, to whose gratification
manufacture and commerce have contributed in so high a degree.
I do not like to hear artists and literary people classed among non-
producers ; the fine arts themselves are productive activities. They
satisfy human needs of the highest order, and whatever satisfies
human needs is, in a broad view of political theory, a productive
activity .
But commerce and manufacture do something more to human
wants than satisfy them — they produce greater wants. The race
must now have more room to live in ; things must be made in vaster
quantities ; distance must be traversed in faster time ; night must
be illuminated ; ocean barriers must be overcome ; uninhabitable
areas must be made inhabitable ; communication with distant places
must become instantaneous.
Reverting now to the relations between men and between
societies, which have grown up during this manufacturing and com-
mercial development, we may note that they have become vastly
ENGINEERING AND THE LAW. in
more numerous, better defined, and various. The rights and duties
attending them have grown into customs. Social habits of loose,
undefined forms have become permanent customs.
These customs become fixed and are more and more defined
and controlled by the regulating system. The power of compelling
them begins to belong to that system and is finally absorbed by it.
The two systems act and react on each other. New ways of manu-
facture, further extensions of commerce, create new customs, and
these have to be established and adjusted to prior customs. Efforts
to satisfy newly awakened desires create further new customs,
which must be established against the impediments which the
existence of old customs always creates.
And thus we trace, in a rough way, the development of each
of the two great systems into which human activities become
divided ; and we find these systems to be the products of such ac-
tivities, while seeking satisfaction for human needs. We have
reached the point in the regulative system where comparatively
irregular habits have developed into manifold and fixed customs.
We have next to observe that the final product of the development
of the operative system is the great institution which forms one
term of the subject of this paper — engineering, and that the final
product of the regulating system is the great institution which forms
the other term of our subject — the law; for as by further develop-
ment under the demands of the expanded wants of mankind the
ordinary activities of manufacture and commerce produce that
higher form of activities named engineering, so the ordinary cus-
toms of mankind, by the increase of intelligence and justice, develop
into the higher form named law.
Engineering has grown out of industrial activities ; out of that
higher class of industrial activities which aims not only at the sus-
tentation of life, but at its augmentation. It is the outcome of the
effort to satisfy the expanded desires which growing intelligence
brings. It was not possible until the renaissance of science. With
the awakening of the scientific spirit, men began looking closer into
the properties of matter, force, time, space. Quantitative ideas
were applied to the results of experiments. Instruments of preci-
sion were invented. Results were put to use to satisfy new desires.
Machinery developed ; land works multiplied ; manufacture and
commerce received tremendous impetus. Engineering as an insti-
tution had come to stay.
Engineering has developed in the same way that all other in-
stitutions have developed — along the course of universal evolution.
Commencing its existence in a state of comparative vagueness and
ii2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
uncertainty, with its theories ill defined and incoherent and its
practice similarly characterizable, it has progressed, as it grew in
mass, to a state of variety, its theories clearly defined and extremely
coherent, and its practice justifying prediction by results.
The well-marked divisions of engineering into architecture,
civil and mechanical, have developed into electrical, mining and
others, with an ever-growing tendency toward further differentia-
tion.
As customs become more fixed and general, they change into
law. This change is well illustrated in Blackstone's "Commentaries
of the Laws of England." The general customs of the realm, long
before the time in which he wrote, had become the common law.
Without enactment of any kind, the customs of the people of Eng-
land had grown into a form so definite and had become so generally
prevalent as to be properly called laws.
But these customary laws were fitted only for an age of com-
parative simplicity. The birth of manufacture and commerce saw
changes in these laws corresponding with the new relations hence
derived. The changes took place in three ways. Where it was
found that a rigid application of the law would work injustice,
legal fictions were often resorted to. Legal fictions assumed, for
the purposes of justice, the existence of a state of facts altogether
different from the real state of such facts. The device has largely
passed out of the legal practice of the present time, the other two
ways of promoting justice having superseded it. These other ways
consist in the application of the principles of equity, and in directly
changing the laws themselves by legislation. Equity is defined as
the correction of that wherein the law, by reason of its universality,
is deficient. The rise of equity jurisprudence obviated the necessity
of resorting to legal fictions for the attainment of justice. The
law here, it must be confessed, so far as our source of it is con-
cerned, borrowed these principles from another part of the regula-
tive system — the ecclesiastical, by whom it was introduced into
England from the civil laws of Rome and administered by the
Chancellors, who were, for a long time, members of the Church,
and not lawyers.
The third way of adapting the rules of common law to the
more intricate relations of modern society is by direct legislation.
This is the most effective mode. Of course, its adaptation to the
purposes intended depends on the intelligence and probity of legis-
latures. But, as to this, we must remember that laws are as easily
repealed as made, and unjust laws are not allowed to remain on
the statute book.
ENGINEERING AND THE LAW. 113
The laws of every one of the United States, excepting Louisi-
ana, are derived from the common law of England. The principles
of the common law are the basis of them all, but they have been
very much amended by legislation. The laws of California, for
instance, while they are based on the common law, have been so
changed as to more nearly resemble the civil law. A San Francisco
lawyer, of forty years' practice, once remarked to me that he had
heard Blackstone cited only three or four times during his whole
legal career.
Relations that have grown up between nations in modern times
have created a large body of international law for their better defi-
nition and enforcement. And it may be said of both international
and municipal law that the changes are in the direction of a juster
order. This simply means that they are becoming better adapted
to regulate, for justice is the adjustment of conduct in the best form
to insure social stability. These changes are all evolutionary in
their character, following the same course as the changes several
times pointed out above.
And so we are thus brought to see that the fruition of the
operative activities is engineering; the fruition of regulative activi-
ties is the law. They stand forth as the noblest products of the
class of experiences to which each belongs. "As the thoughts of
men are broadened with the process of the suns" — as the emotional
nature of men deepens and widens — there come into being a sci-
entific system of engineering on the one hand, and a just system of
laws on the other.
The prime factor in the progress of civilization is the subjuga-
tion of force. On the one hand, the natural forces had to be
brought under man's control. Man had to discover the art of
pitting them against one another, and of converting one form into
another. He had to use his knowledge in the construction of great
stationary works, and immense machines. All this was the work of
the operative system ; co-operative labor produced it all. In order to
accomplish it pure scientists had to discover the most abstruse
qualities of these forces, and of time, space and matter. These dis-
covered qualities were to be used in material structures for man's
benefit. And along with this subjugation of natural forces there
had to go a subjugation of forces of a very different kind. The
erratic forces of human nature — human desires moving to unfore-
seeable actions — had also to be subjugated. The rights and duties
arising along with the multiplied relations which came into being in
the growing civilization had to be defined and maintained.
Irregularities of human conduct arising from uncontrollable
ii4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
feelings would render a civilized state impossible. The control of
these human forces is the province of the regulative system, and
so we have the subjugation of force as the prime factor in social
progress.
The part that engineering has played in this subjugation pro-
cess is that of leader, master, commander of the operative system ;
it has shown mankind how to adjust the forces concerned in the
building of cities ; it has taught manufacture to adjust natural force
to do work for man's benefit, and commerce how to adjust such
forces to surmount barriers of time and space. Engineering has
done this and much more, and so we are justified in claiming for
engineering the paramount position in the system.
The law occupies a like position in the regulating system as
the chief subjugator of the other kinds of forces. Before men
begin to act on the abstract principles of ethics their conduct must
be disciplined by the law. Ethics itself is only a further development
of law. Conduct consists of acts adjusted to ends. In civilization
many acts become inimical to social life that were appropriate
enough to the preceding state. Many of the ends are also inimical.
Yet the forces of human desires impel men to do these acts and to
seek these ends, and will continue to do so until human nature has
become completely adjusted to the social state and there needs
no law but ethics. To control these forces has been the province
of the law — to pit one against the other, as engineering has pitted
force against force ; and as in engineering the result has been stable
structures, so in law the result has been stable social structures.
The law has done this more than any other controlling agency, and
so it occupies the paramount position in the regulative system that
engineering does in the operative system.
Thus, engineering and the law stand forth as the great factors
of civilization. The products of engineering have done more than
any other products for the material good of mankind, and the law
has been the principal means of maintaining man's enjoyment of
these good results.
The making of civilization is not yet complete. The making of
engineering and the making of the law are by no means finished.
The needs of mankind are ever increasing. Society turns to the
engineer to satisfy them in the future as she has done in the past.
New legal relations are ever springing up, and society turns to the
law with hope and confidence that she will in the future, as in the
past, define and regulate them with always a nearer and nearer ap-
proach to perfect justice.
TRADE SCHOOLS. 115
TRADE SCHOOLS.
By Edward Thomas Hewitt, Member of the Technical Society of the
Pacific Coast.
[A paper read before the Autumnal Meeting of the Society, December 2,
1904.*]
What is the necessity for such schools, what are they accom-
plishing, what possibilities have they for future development, what
is their present status? The subject is one so broad and deep,
that it affects the whole social structure. The stability of a nation
depends largely upon the welfare of its people, upon their fitness
for the many pursuits of life, requiring constant and serious consid-
eration. Recognizing this to be the case, the utmost attention is
given to the education of the youth of our country. The public
school system will always maintain its proper position. The trade
school is coming prominently to the fore, and is an influential factor
in the preparation of young men and women to be successful in their
life-work.
There are two great problems that open out before everyone :
First, how to get a living, and second, how to get the most meaning
out of life. Often the first overshadows the second, until the latter
has become, to many, a half-forgotten dream. It has been a source
of great pleasure and benefit to me, in the past, to have been asso-
ciated with men who had learned their trades under the old system
in this and other countries, and I can testify to the fact that they
were thorough workmen.
Conditions have changed a great deal since those men first
started out on their life-work. Sometimes in the past it had been
maintained that the shop was the best school in which to learn a
trade, and that the sooner a boy entered the shop as an apprentice,
after acquiring the rudiments of a common-school education, the
better it was for him. That may be true, where a boy's only
desire is to become and remain just an ordinary workman. There
are, of course, some exceptions to this rule. The general prosperity
of the present time permits the parent to give his children a better
education than was formerly obtainable. The trade school of to-day
aids materially in the accomplishing of this purpose. The graduates
are demonstrating to employers their superiority, acquired through
proper training for their chosen lines of work. After the boy has
graduated from this school, obtained employment, become familiar
* Manuscript received February 13. 1005. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
n6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
with shop methods, his education proves its real value. The results
have been very encouraging to all concerned.
The general tendency nowadays is toward obtaining an edu-
cation before looking for regular employment. This means a more
effective power for work. I have frequently seen young men make
great sacrifices, in order that they might be enabled to continue at
school. The future years will prove the wisdom of their present
application to study. We find the sons of professional men, me-
chanics, farmers, miners, business men and of manufacturers,
in short, men representing many classes of society, earnestly
working side by side in trade schools, this class of school being just
what they wanted. To many, ordinary school life had been some-
what distasteful. Boys of fourteen years of age pass through a
period of physical transition, their bodies and minds are growing
and developing rapidly; hence the great care that is necessary at
this time, as their whole life is shaped by the course that is taken by
them then. Of the children who enter the grammar schools a very
small percentage reach the university-
As a basis for this discussion, allow me to submit some statistics
on school attendance. The school census of this city and county,
for the year 1901, stated that there were 105,512 children under
18 years of age. Of the 82,173 children between the ages of 5 and
17 years, 48,517 are reported as having attended school at some time
during the year. The average daily attendance was 34,771. The
number of children, between the ages of 5 and 17 years, attending
private schools during the year was 10,586. The number of chil-
dren of school age, who have not attended school at any time during
the year, was 20,634. The report states that while the school age
in our own State extends over eleven years, from the sixth to the
seventeenth year of life, very few pupils attend school for that length
of time. The average child has a little more than 6 years' school-
ing. San Francisco ranks well with other cities of this country in
school attendance.
The efficiency of the secondary school has been greatly in-
creased through the introduction of manual training and industrial
work. Boys having a natural aptitude for mechanics are now
desirous of entering these trade schools, as they give them a better
opportunity for developing their talents and for finding out for
themselves what particular line of work they are best suited to
follow. In former years boys did not have this opportunity. A
large majority of the graduates of grammar schools entered for
employment at almost anything they could find to do, having no
definite plan in view. If they chose a trade, they possibly attended
TRADE SCHOOLS. 117
a night school. Many a boy has gone through life totally unfitted
for any particular calling. Restrictions as to the number of ap-
prentices still further placed him in a precarious position.
Young men must obtain some kind of employment, employers
cannot conduct their many enterprises without the aid of skilled
help.
While the author fully recognizes much good in the old ap-
prenticeship system, it is evidently inadequate under present condi-
tions. Business is conducted by employers for profit, and it costs
something to teach the apprentice his trade, so the boy often loses
a great deal of time doing rough work. If he shows an aptitude,
he may possibly be given some small job on which to try his skill.
If he spoils it, some time may elapse before he is given another
opportunity. As a rule, in the average shop, he has to shift for
himself.
Cheap help proves to be the most expensive in the long run.
It may not please some educators to have to consider the
utilitarian phase of education. But then, every head of a household
cannot afford to send his children into the higher schools, unless he
sees future possibilities which warrant his doing so. Therefore,
the schools must adapt themselves to his wants, and reserve the
university courses for those who are better able to take them. The
trade school here finds its place, proving its worth, which is now
universally recognized.
The old order changeth, gradually giving place for the new.
August Belmont, the man who financed the stupendous Subway
undertaking in New York City, in commenting on the opening of
the Subway, recently remarked philosophically to a friend : "That
I am pleased that the Subway is at last completed, goes without
saying. But, the longer I live, the more keenly I feel that, whatever
is good enough for us to-day, is not good enough for us to-morrow.
The Subway is only the beginning of great things in its line."
Xow I will endeavor to sum up briefly the various avenues of
employment that are open to the young man. Graduating from the
grammar school, he may, if so inclined, enter some large iron works
to learn a trade, and attend a night school to study arithmetic,
mechanical drawing, physics, geometry, science, etc. If the boy is
of the right sort, he will stick to his work and studies, thus qualify-
ing for advancement. Very often it happens that he has nobody to
direct his efforts for mental improvement. Employers have no spe-
cial interest in his welfare, and there may be no suitable night
school available to attend.
Some of the representative firms of this country, feeling the
n8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
need for more high-grade workmen than could be obtained in the
old way, decided that it was imperative to give closer attention to
the care and training of the young men in their employ. This
has been productive of very good results. The young men, in turn,
appreciate the efforts in their behalf, and are as proud of theit
shops as any university graduate is of his Alma Mater. The Bald-
win Locomotive Works, Brown and Sharpe Manufacturing Com-
pany, the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, are
notable instances of firms which are solving the apprenticeship
question. Each of the aforementioned firms has an experienced
man who has complete supervision of the apprentices. He examines
them in the first instance to see if they come properly prepared,
and upon their preparation depends the group in which they may be
placed, of which there are three. First-class apprentices comprise
boys who have had a good common-school education and who are
not over 17 years of age. Second-class apprentices are boys who
have had an advanced grammar or high-school training and who
are not over 18 years of age. There is also a special course of
instruction for young men over 21 years of age who are grad-
uates of colleges or technical schools.
The director of apprentices sees that each apprentice receives
a full and sufficient training in his particular work, and also directs
the studies, choosing the particular school which they are to attend.
He stands as guardian for them in many respects while they are in
the city, as many are from other parts of the country.
The director is really a school principal in these large works.
His efforts promote system and efficiency, and these are what his
employers want. In reality, this is an ideal type of trade school.
It is the outgrowth of the urgent necessity for high-grade work.
This particular apprenticeship system at present is limited to a few
noted manufacturing companies. It is practically putting the school
in the shop. This, no doubt, would please our old friend, Professor
Sweet.
It is hardly possible for smaller companies to follow the ex-
ample set by these firms. Trade schools must fill the gap. They
are now giving to young people a thorough and systematic training
in a very large number of industrial pursuits. In the future it will
be the graduates of these schools, who, after a riper experience,
will naturally assume the leading positions in the industrial world.
I would like to add that the schools of San Francisco are amply
able to give our youth the training they require.
If a young man intends to study law, medicine or theology,
the regular high school, giving the classical course, is preferable.
TRADE SCHOOLS. 119
If he has a business career in view, the commercial school will help
him. To become a successful farmer, a course in a school of
agriculture is to the purpose. If he desires to become a profes-
sional engineer, in some one of the many branches of the art, a
college preparatory course in a mechanic arts school will give
him the necessary preliminary training. The young man who
wishes to learn a trade, and also to obtain a good education, would
do well to spend four years in a school of industrial arts. It will be
time well spent. These schools are enabled to offer good induce-
ments, having an excellent equipment, efficient instructors and prac-
tically free tuition. The school day is of longer duration than in
the common schools. Thus it is possible to accomplish a great
amount of work during the term.
Educators, philanthropists, statesmen, men of affairs, have
given their time and money to further the advancement of industrial
education. Mistakes have been made in the past, as in all new and
important undertakings, but they are gradually being remedied.
Industrial education has passed the experimental stage. The splen-
did schools, now open to students in this and other countries, testify
to the universal need of them. To speak of some of our local
institutions, I might mention the Wilmerding School of Industrial
Arts, founded by J. C. Wilmerding; the California School of
Mechanical Arts, founded by James Lick ; Coggswell Polytechnic
College, founded by the late Dr. Coggswell ; Polytechnic High
School ; Drawing Department of the Humboldt Evening School ;
the California Polytechnic School, a secondary school of agriculture.
The foregoing are secondary schools.
For those who desire to study for a professional life, the Uni-
versity of California and Stanford University are amply prepared.
Passing through the many different departments of a large
modern school devoted to the training of young men in the mechanic
arts, the question arises in our mind, What would our youth do
if such schools did not exist? Observe them carefully, see how en-
grossed they are with their work. They have learned the secret of
being happy through occupation. Greater interest is taken in
mathematics and science, for the students now see their application.
The knowledge of free-hand drawing enables them to make quick,
serviceable sketches. The study of mechanics, including the
strength of materials, helps them in machine design. Boiler and
engine tests are conducted under the most favorable conditions.
In the school devoted to the building trades, everything is con-
sidered that is necessary in the construction of a complete building.
Agricultural schools will enable the future farmer to manage his
120 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
farm to better advantage. The field of industrial chemistry is now
offering abundant opportunities.*
Such an earnest desire is shown by the students, that the noon
hour is utilized by many for work, as they do not want to lose a
minute. Discipline is maintained not by severity or strictness,
but by leaving the students on their honor to conduct themselves in a
proper manner. The greatest punishment we can inflict is to
compel a student to remain out of his class. Much interest is taken
by them in athletics, music, debating, etc. The experiments in the
laboratory, work in the shop, studies in the class room, track
athletics, social pleasures, are taken up with enthusiasm. Under
such influences, a splendid type of man is produced.
Having had the opportunity to observe closely the results of
apprenticeship in the shops, and of training in the special schools,
I feel confident in saying that the school method has, in most cases,
the advantage. We have letters on hand from employers, parents
and graduates which prove our statements. Of course, there are
some boys whom no amount of schooling could improve, just as
there are boys in the shops whom no amount of adverse circum-
stances could hold down. In its broader meaning, the school gives
the greatest good to the largest number. Applications for entrance
next July are already on file in many of these special schools.
The Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts for boys was
founded by Mr. J. Chute Wilmerding, $400,000 being left to es-
tablish and maintain a school to teach boys trades, fitting them to
make a living with their hands, with some study and plenty of work.
The school is open to any earnest, industrious boy who wants to
learn one of the building trades. Any boy who has completed the
grammar-school course is eligible for admission. It is intended to
give something more than the mere equivalent of a workshop
apprenticeship. Its graduates must have a fair command of the
English language. They must know enough of mathematics, draw-
ing and science to insure intelligent and progressive workmanship.
But, with all these things, the student must acquire a thorough
mastery of his trade. He must become a skillful, rapid and thor-
ough workman. The trades taught are carpentry, architectural
drawing, plumbing, cabinet making, electrical working, bricklaying,
blacksmithing, wood carving, clay modeling. Four years is the
course. The new brick buildings of this school, also an enlarge-
ment of the Lick School buildings (including the many branches of
* The girls, in addition to their academic work, are taught domestic
science. The value of all this is apparent.
TRADE SCHOOLS. I2I
detail work involved), are being built by the students, and are
attracting much "favorable attention.
The California School of Mechanical Arts was founded by
James Lick, and was endowed at a cost of $540,000. Its object is
to educate boys and girls in the practical walks of life. The school
is free of charge for tuition, and is open to any boy or girl of this
State who has completed the eighth grade of the grammar school.
The following trades and technical courses are given:
Boys. Girls.
Forgework. Industrial arts.
Iron and brass molding. Cookery.
Machine-shop practice. Dressmaking.
Electrical construction. Millinery.
Machine and ship drawing.
Industrial chemistry.
Polytechnic course.
The boys and girls are eligible for a technical college prepara-
tory course. Four years are required for each trade. A full aca-
demic course is given in conjunction with the trade selected. A
short term is devoted by each student to each of the foregoing trades,
and is called the manual training or preliminary course. This
covers the first two years. They are then re-classified, and the stu-
dent may take up further studies, to prepare himself for the technical
college or university course. Again, any student, who may not
care to specialize in any of the courses given, may pursue a general
elective course, made up by selection from the various subjects
offered in the different departments of the school. This is called
the polytechnic course. To avoid dissipation of effort on the part
of the student, and to prevent him from taking up work for which
he is unfitted, his progress must be approved by the instructor in
charge of each department concerned.
A large number of students choose the trades courses. During
their term of apprenticeship, the major part of their time is devoted
to a practical study of their trade in all its forms ; as large a variety
of work as possible is given. Such studies as are necessary for
efficient work in their trade are required, viz : mechanical drawing,
strength of materials, mechanics, boiler and engine tests, mathe-
matics. The class of work done is of an educational and practical
nature. The instructors in charge are men who have had practical
experience. I might mention that several castings have been made
recently, each weighing 1800 pounds. Electric motors, steam pumps,
machine tools, hoists, steam engines, an electric traveling crane of
122 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
2500 pounds capacity, and many special tools, have been made by
the students in a workmanlike manner.
The Coggswell Polytechnic School, under its new principal,
intends so to shape its policy as to include a course of mineralogy
and assaying. In time a practical mining course will be adopted.
Graduates of the eighth grade of the grammar schools are admitted.
The California Polytechnic School is a State institution, situ-
ated in San Luis Obispo. The purpose of this school is to furnish,
to young people of both sexes, mental and manual training in the
arts and sciences, including agriculture, mechanics, engineering,
business methods, domestic economy, and such other branches as
will fit the student for the non-professional walks of life. Its
location is extremely favorable for its success.
The Drawing Department of the Humboldt Evening School
of this city is doing a good work. Here may be seen 460 students
spending their evenings, from 7.15 to 9.15. The course requires
three years or more.
There are two classes in naval architecture.
One class in electrical engineering.
Two classes in architecture.
Six classes in mechanical engineering.
The last item is divided into the following special branches :
Two classes in special and automatic machinery.
Two classes in marine engineering.
One class in gas-engine construction.
One class in mining and mill work.
In addition to these there remain :
One class in geometry and trigonometry.
One class in algebra and advanced arithmetic.
One class in theoretical mechanics and electricity.
Lectures are given every Friday evening in each class by the
class instructor, from 8.35 to 9.15. Semi-annually six lectures are
given by professional technical men on the various branches given
in the school. The instructors are men daily engaged in the
branches they teach. The school has been established seven years.
Its rapid growth and large attendance of students testify to the
necessity for such a school and to the good work done by those in
charge. Allow me to add that the social feature of so many earnest
young men, meeting together every evening, is of incalculable
benefit. Their minds are improved, daily work is raised in quality,
employers are benefited. Many life-long friendships have their
beginning's where such conditions exist.
TRADE SCHOOLS. 123
In the Polytechnic High School of our city, a very good course
is given in mechanical drawing, woodwork, machine practice, wood
carving, clay modeling, free-hand drawing. Many of the graduates
are employed in our various shops.
Children in the public schools are now given elementary in-
struction in woodwork.
Throughout this country there are many schools that have
been established in recent years, notably the New York Trade
School, Pratt Institute, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Drexel
Institute of Philadelphia, Cooper Institute of New York, Armour
Institute of Technology, Chicago. The reputable correspondence
schools are assisting young men who would otherwise remain with-
out any systematic training.
In the South, Booker T. Washington is trying to solve the
negro question by education. He has established a school of trades
at Tuskegee, Alabam,a, and, by encouraging thrift and industry,
he expects to raise the standard of living for the colored man.
The Kamehameha Schools, in the Hawaiian Islands, were
erected for the benefit of the native boys and girls. Instruction is
given in the common English branches, manual training, sewing,
tailoring, printing, practical agriculture, carpentry, forgework,
machine work, painting and electrical work. This school was
founded by Mrs. Chas. R. Bishop.
Every country needs skilled workers along many lines of in-
dustry. It is interesting to note that modern methods are invading
the cities of the Orient. The Philippine School of Arts and Trades
has been established in Manila, offering to the native young men an
excellent opportunity to fit themselves for positions in industrial
lines of work. The people of these islands have much latent me-
chanical skill, and the object of this school will be to develop this
ability, guide it into modern channels, and foster a sentiment in
favor of honest labor.
The Japanese recognized the benefits of industrial training
long ago, and were quick to adopt it. In England and Scotland,
many schools are doing excellent work. The idea is gaining in
favor, in fact, it is becoming a necessity. Competition, in the
markets of the world, with the United States and Continental
Europe, is compelling new methods to be adopted.
In Germany, industrial chemistry has created new lines of
manufactures and revolutionized old methods. Mr. Carnegie and
Mr, Schwab, Sir Philip Magnus and many others have given much
of their time, labor and means for the improvement of men, and
methods of performing work.
124 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
At the laying of the cornerstone of the new building of the
Hebrew Technical School for girls, now being erected in New York
City, former President Grover Cleveland, in his address as presid-
ing officer of the exercises, said : Public appropriations and private
charity are mindful of men and women in poverty, sickness and
distress ; orphan boys and girls are compassionately cared for and
sheltered, but it was an inspiration of genuine benevolence, which
led to a different field of human endeavor, and to the establish-
ment of an agency for good which goes farther than to furnish the
objects of its care with food and raiment, and the things that perish
with the using. Here, girls and boys, who would otherwise be
shut out from opportunity for needed improvement, are to be taught
remunerative occupations, and thus the thoughts and inclinations
of these children will be so molded as to affect our citizenship and
our country's weal for years to come."
Periods of prosperity and of depression will always recur, but
the path of modern civilization will always have an upward trend.
We should feel proud to be citizens of this beautiful city by the
Golden Gate, in this wonderfully productive State of California,
where the sturdy pioneers paved the way for us. History proves
that engineers have also had a prominent place in its development.
The many gifts which nature has so bountifully bestowed afford
opportunity for the employment of a very large number of people.
One of the greatest forces in the civilization of the present genera-
tion is being manifested through the mechanic arts. The magnifi-
cent ships of war, steam and sailing vessels ; the splendid machinery
constructed for mining, milling, manufacturing and power plants ;
the handsome buildings that grace our city, testify to the great
ability and skill of our engineers, architects and mechanics. The
construction of the Panama Canal will require much machinery.
Who can tell what position our Western cities will take when the
canal is finished?
Classes of work are so diversified that specialization in the
schools is necessary. To avoid dissipation of effort, and to obtain
the best results, different schools are allotting to themselves certain
spheres of influences.
The California School of Mechanical Arts intends to add to
its curriculum, at some time in the future, such trades as belong to
the field of mechanical and electrical engineering and marine archi-
tecture.
The Wilmerding School will confine itself to the building
trades, the Coggswell College to the mining industry, and the Cali-
fornia Polytechnic School to agriculture, etc.
TRADE SCHOOLS. 125
The employer, the employe, the educator and the heads of
households must consider this vital question of education. Pro-
fessional men have always taken a personal interest. We would,
therefore, especially invite our citizens and civic bodies to visit our
many institutions and to see for themselves what is being done for
the uplifting of the youth of our city, developing them in the fullest
sense of the word, making them better men and women and teaching
them to enjoy life as the Creator designed they should.
DISCUSSION.
Prof. W. F. Durand, of Stanford University. — How the train-
ing of our future mechanics is to be divided between the schools and
shops, I cannot tell, but I believe that there will be room for both.
Each has its mission, as there are certain things the trade school
can do better than the shop, and others which the shop can do
better than the schools. The two institutions ought to be com-
bined. The trade school is of special value.
After all, life is something more than living — it consists in
living and enjoying the good things of this world, and if the student
can gain a little broader view of the world, or cultivate good taste in
literature, becoming more of a man and getting more out of life, he
is at the same time gaining something which will enable him to
make a better use of life. The secret of instruction is development,
and keenness of attention to things outside of himself. Very few
are sensitive to a high degree, but when one is found in the hands of
a good teacher, then the highest type of man is developed.
The schools are for the purpose of turning out a mechanic, a
workman, while in the shop the output is to be a piece of machinery,
etc., to be sold at a profit. Schools cannot do everything. The
question of labor cannot be handled successfully in the trade
schools. Each has its mission to perform, and, if we can only find
the right combination, they can work together for one purpose.
As to the need of cultivating skilled labor as a necessity for
maintaining our position in the industrial world, it has been
proved oyer and over again, in the shop world, that repetition work-
saves both time and labor, and both have thus been enormously
economized. The products of industry can be manufactured with
vastly reduced cost if we will only find the right process of produc-
tion. Our present processes are imperfect and admit of improve-
ment, and the question is only to find out how to make the improve-
ments so as to produce the items in the quickest and cheapest way.
The trade school is simply one step in this general development of
126 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
skilled labor. Whatever may be our future, as determined in the
next 10 or 15 years, our progress will be, in a great degree, due to
the good work which our trade schools are doing to-day.
Prof. C. B. Wing. — Education is the development of a person ;
it is his capacity to see things, and to use what he sees for benefiting
himself and the world at large. The desire for education is, pri-
marily, the purpose of providing a livelihood, and a wish to make
this world a better place in which to get a livelihood. We must not
only teach a person's mind to see things, to reason, to express what
he sees and to draw a conclusion from his observations, but he must
also be able to apply his intellect to some practical purpose in the
bettering of his condition and that of the world around him. Thus,
the boy who is raised upon the farm has less opportunity for train-
ing his mind than the boy in the city ; yet, placing them side by side,
the boy from the farm has had his manual skill developed, and, at
the same time, Kis mental capacity, and he is not only able to hold
his own with the boy who has had intellectual training in the city,
but can also use his hands.
When we merely teach persons to do things with their hands
for the mere sake of doing it, without giving the necessary in-
tellectual training as a basis, it is hard to meet, in the trade schools,
the condition of competition existing in the shop. Any task set in
the school is merely play and not work, and there is where the shop
has to take the place of the trade school. In the shop, the boy
knows that if he does not do his work well he will lose his ap-
prenticeship, and the workman knows he will lose his job. Thus,
the object of manual training is not only to learn the work itself,
but also for the intellectual development of the student, and to
enable him to see how he is going to solve the problem of his daily
life.
Mr. Marsden Manson. — I have gone through the Lick and
Wilmerding Schools and have seen the type of work they do, and I
was impressed with the interest the pupils take in their work.
In the South Carolina Agricultural College, cotton is manu-
factured. Every grade of cotton is raised. It is ginned, cleaned,
carded, spun, woven and put in the shop for use, so that every
manipulation of the cotton, from the seed to the cloth, is gone
through there. There are 600 pupils. The college shows the wide
range these technical schools are taking.
Mr. A. E. Roberts, Head of Drawing Department, Hum-
boldt Evening School. — It is impossible to teach certain trades and
certain lines of work in an ordinary trade school, and I believe that
TRADE SCHOOLS. 127
the proper system of technical education is where the workshop and
the school are intimately related. A combination of practical work,
in the daytime, with evening training, including algebra, trigo-
nometry, science, etc., is the ideal system of education.
The trade school has its mission. Its mission is to go along
with work to a certain extent, but to undertake to teach to any man
a trade is attempting too much. The schools can go to a certain
extent only. The principal value of the trade school is to give a
young man a good academic training, with an insight into the
trade he selects. He will then become a first-class mechanic, for
he will understand the whys and wherefores of the different prob-
lems he meets in the shops.
I find the trade schools do not pay proper attention to the im-
portant question of time. A young man, going into a shop from a
trade school, does not properly understand the value of time. The
school overlooks the importance of practical work, and thus the
force of its instruction is lost.
I am a friend of the trade schools, but they have their limits,
and I do not believe in carrying them too far.
In order to have practical men carry on the work of instruc-
tion the professors should do practical work on the outside, as in
that way they are enabled to keep in touch with the work.
I indorse what you say about the workshop method of instruc-
tion, but I add that academic work should go on in the evenings.
Mr. Orion Brooks. — At one time I was for several years en-
gaged in manufacturing, and I then employed apprentices, not very
largely, but enough to understand the needs of an apprentice. At
that time, some twenty years ago, there were no regular apprentice
laws.
The employer lacks the incentive to teach an apprentice. In
order to make an intelligent workman, a man must be something
more than a machine, and, in order to be that, he must have some in-
struction, which it seems can hardly be obtained in the workshop.
It is almost if not quite impossible to impress on the pupil in
the trade school the seriousness of his work.
Without the trade schools we would be very likely to fall be-
hind in the various industries. The difficulty lies in making the
trade schools comply with trade conditions. The trend seems to
be toward incorporating commercial trade customs in the trade
schools, which is very encouraging, as it comes nearer, year by
year, to the conditions found in the shops, and when such condi-
tions shall be reached, we can turn out from our schools thorough
128 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
workmen, who will be something more than machines, and who
will find the doors of all shops open to them.
Mr. G. W. Dickie. — This is a very interesting paper and one
that should command the attention of all technical men. I do
not quite agree with Mr. Hewitt in regard to the trade schools
taking the place of the apprentice system. The majority of trades-
men have been, and, I think, always will be, educated in the work-
shop. I noticed, however, four years ago, a tendency abroad to
introduce a certain amount of technical work in the shops. I found
this idea worked out and in operation in several of the large in-
dustrial institutions in England and in some places in Scotland.
This I found especially the case in Berlin, where, in several large
establishments, the apprentices had to spend two hours each day
in the schoolroom attached to the works.
There is a large class of industries, which, from the nature of
the operations, cannot be taught practically in any school. We
could never expect to go to a trade school and get fitters, riveters,
etc., for work in the shipyard — such work could never find a place
in any school. Then, the commercial element is almost excluded
from the trade training of the school ; that is, the ability to do work
in commercial competition with others forms no part of such teach-
ing, and this is the most important part of trade education. One
hard thing for a boy to learn is to be prompt at work when the
whistle blows at seven o'clock, and to keep steadily doing effective
work until the whistle blows at five o'clock in the evening, and thus
acquire the ability to produce enough to enable his employer to keep
him steadily employed, and give him the regular compensation for
such work. The schools are not required to run a profitable busi-
ness in order to keep open, and they thus fail to teach the most im-
portant thing that always confronts the tradesman ; that is, that
his production must be worth more in the market than the remunera-
tion he expects to get for it.
I am quite interested in the subject, and I occasionally visit
the trade schools, especially the evening schools for imparting
technical knowledge to young men who are at work in the shops all
day. They are doing a grand work, and they should receive sup-
port from all technical men. The day trade schools are also a
great help, but we must not expect too much from them. I do not
think that they can ever take the place of the regular system of
apprenticeships in the shop. We have a large number of ap-
prentices, about 600, but not many of them come to us from the
trade schools.
TRADE SCHOOLS. 129
The Author. — The great benefits of trade and technical
schools to humanity are now universally recognized. These schools
are now receiving the best attention from thoroughly competent
and trained teachers, men of broad education and practical experi-
ence. There are many excellent night schools in all of the large
cities, their work being supplementary in character. The good
work that is being done by the particular schools aforementioned is
so self-evident that argument against them seems futile. Shops
offering instruction to their employes are so few as hardly to be
noticeable in comparison with the large number of places which de-
mand only routine work, and where the men drift along and do not
develop in the proper way. How much better workmen they would
be if they had a good education ! Employers, educators of the
proper experience and heads of families should come together and
plan for a definite policy of instruction for the youth of our land.
How often it happens that they are pulling in opposite directions.
In the meanwhile, the boy does not know what course to pur-
sue. If he does obtain some kind of employment, the chances are
he is unsuited for it. Give a young man or woman an opportunity
to start life properly, with some definite goal in view, enabling him
or her to enjov life in the fullest and broadest sense of the word.
130 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
PHENOMENA OF MACHINE OPERATION.
By John Richards, Member of the Technical Society of the Pacific
Coast.
[Read before the Autumnal Meeting of the Society, December 2, 1904.*]
Among the many agencies and means that contribute to the
evolution and better performance of machines and determine their
endurance and economy of construction, there is one, sometimes
ignored and in all cases underrated — the phenomena of their opera-
tion ; that part which is not computable or learned by rules.
This factor, element or condition, whatever it may be called,
however strongly it may assert itself in results, is not regularly
recognized in the engineering literature of our day; and the object
of the present short essay is to urge its claims and importance upon
those who are called upon to deal with machine problems — a long-
suffering class of people, who need whatever aid can come from this
or other source.
In static structures, that do not involve machine motion, or that
branch of constructive work we commonly call civil engineering,
there is a close relation with science ; means and agents are becom-
ing uniform and can be computed and results predicated with much
certainty. Strains can be defined ; the properties of material are
ascertainable ; and extraneous forces, such as stress of the elements,
the stability, oxidation and decay of material, and even its deteriora-
tion by fatigue, are becoming known and computable.
In machine operation, however, the path is by no means so
clear and perhaps never can be. Nevertheless, progress is being
made, and some of the general phenomena of operation are becom-
ing susceptible of computation and scientific treatment ; but, as I
believe, to a much less extent than is generally assumed and believed.
To present the subject in a practical way, I have chosen the
only means that seem available when considering things not com-
putable, that is by citation of observed facts, and I shall refer to
some typical examples. First among these may be mentioned the
evolution of apparatus to impel fluids, especially liquids, by cen-
trifugal force.
This is seemingly one of the most simple of all means for
creating pressure. A body of liquid, confined in a fixed circular
chamber, or contained in a revoluble circular vessel, can be set in
* Manuscript received February 13, 1005. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
PHENOMENA OF MACHINE OPERATION. 131
revolution without other resistance than friction, and this can be
reduced to a very low degree in vessels that revolve with the liquid
they contain, creating almost unlimited centrifugal tension ; but the
removal of the liquid from the vessel or chamber, or its discharge,
and the translation of its rotary energy into pressure involve
various mechanical impediments, so that the art has been in evolu-
tion for half a century past.
This process engaged the attention of the celebrated French
engineer, Emil Bourdon, who constructed machines that worked up
to high water pressure — more than 1000 pounds per inch, it is
claimed. Some work in the same direction has been done within
a. few years past, here in California, both with liquids and with
elastic fluids, but with what particular results I am not able to say.
I mention the method as one phase in the evolution of centrifugal
apparatus that may in future have some importance.
During the latter half of the past century, which covers prac-
tically the development of the common forms of centrifugal pumps,
in which the fluid is set in revolution in a fixed chamber or casing,
we have had a maze of computations by eminent scientific men
bearing upon the construction and operation of such machines ; but,
so far as I am aware, no clear or correct explanation of the phenom-
ena of their operation or of the varied conditions of their use.
Such computations as we have were naturally based upon cer-
tain assumed premises derived from obvious hydraulic laws, and,
to some extent, from experiments ; but these latter have not been
of a kind to disclose what we call the principle or mode of action,
including the whole passage of liquid through the machines.
The main resistances that qualify effect were sought out and
shortened into formulae which are, in the main, correct. Arrange-
ments and proportions were based upon such formulated data, and
fifty years have since passed, with progress, it must be admitted,
but, as I maintain, without providing a clear concept and treat-
ment of what has been called the phenomena of operation. Strange
to say, the impediment to such concept and treatment was confined
almost wholly to the simple matter of returning the water, after its
rotation, to a state of rest or service-flow, without a loss of the
kinetic energy required to set the water in revolution.
That there was a good deal of mystery in this matter is suf-
ficiently proved by the fact that a great share of the literature,
relating to such pumps, has been devoted to the shape of the impell-
ing vanes, a thing which modern practice shows to be of no impor-
tance and almost a negligible matter in constructive design. The
function of such vanes is to set the water in revolution, and is but
132 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
little more, except as to a slight modification of frictional resistance.
The body of confined water in revolution is the thing to be consid-
ered. The vanes, except as to the function named, are merely a
portion of the mass in revolution, moving at a rate, relatively,
which renders their shape and curves a matter of little importance.
It was or should have been obvious, from the beginning,
that the only considerable loss of energy took place in the zone
between the impellers and the collecting or discharge chambers ;
but it required, as before stated, about half a century to complete
this discovery, or, rather, to devise apparatus that would adapt
itself to this fact, and a manner of operating accommodated thereto.
The most successful attempt at preserving or utilizing the
kinetic energy of the water's revolution was made a few years ago
by Messrs. Sulzer Bros., of Switzerland, who introduced separating
vanes in the dispersion zone of centrifugal pumps, to divide the
water into distinct divergent streams and to preserve it from agita-
tion until its energy was translated into pressure.
To accomplish this, the dispersion passages had to begin with
an area that would collectively vent a particular volume of water
at the velocity required to balance the head or resistance. Such
construction, when the castings and internal surfaces were true and
tolerably smooth, increased the efficiency of such pumps, for the
higher pressures, about ten per cent, or more compared to those
without a dispersion zone or when the water is discharged from the
impeller directly into a collecting chamber ; but, at the same time,
it set up impediments and limitations of a very formidable kind.
The castings are difficult to make; the acute points of the dis-
persion vanes wear away ; but, most of all, the pumps have to be
driven at an invariable speed and to deliver a specific volume of
water in order to gain this higher efficiency. There is also a very
considerable increase in dimensions and in cost of construction,
and it remains to be seen whether a satisfactory efficiency cannot be
attained without encountering these impediments.
We are in no position to know the value of divided water
passages in the dispersion zones of such pumps, until the cause of
losses there is understood. A mass of water, moving at high veloc-
ity, is easily disturbed and broken up into devious currents and
courses, especially when the water is moving in a circular path, and
it is easy to conceive that rough cast surfaces and imperfect shape
of the discharge-way produced the principal loss in an open dis-
charge zone. Computation furnishes no clue to this matter.
The future will, no doubt, determine this, not suddenly, or as
a discovery perhaps, but by a careful study of the construction and
PHENOMENA OF MACHINE OPERATION. 133
adaptation of such pumps to the theoretical and also the practical
conditions of design.
To make a theoretical centrifugal pump from computed data
is quite a simple matter. A diagram, to cover or include the water
passages through a pump, with a cross section as the volume and
inversely as the velocity, the length of the diagram representing the
acceleration and retardation of flow, will disclose a design theoreti-
cally correct, and would only require that such a diagram be sur-
rounded by a confining chamber of sufficient strength.
In practice, however, such a scheme would fail. Every pump
would become a special machine for a specific volume and head ;
contraction of the water passages would prevent the passage of
solids, except those of small size ; the disturbance by the roughness
of interior surfaces and divergence of course would interrupt and
modify the velocity of flow ; the machines could not be cheaply pro-
duced by the implements of organized manufacture, they would
fail to meet the diversities of use, and the cost would far exceed the
commercial standards that now prevail.
The conditions of practical use demand that pumps be made,
within certain limits, for both high and low pressures, or with a
considerable range of adaptation to different pressures ; they have
to be employed for various liquids, pure and impure, viscous and
corrosive, and to pass solids of various kinds, including sand and
gravel. They must endure abrasive scour in their water passages
and exposure of their journal bearings, and they must be provided
against unequal pressure or lateral thrust on the impellers. In-
terior surfaces, where the velocity is great, should be in true con-
tour and finished smooth, with other features which could be named
and which lie wholly outside of what we may call a computed or
theoretical construction.
These are the circumstances such as cause long periods of
evolution, require extensive observance of the phenomena and con-
ditions of operation, and have to be learned tentatively, by inference,
observation and experiment.
I have reverted at some length to centrifugal pumping, but the
like circumstances apply to nearly all fluid machines which, as a
class, have received the highest possible scientific treatment.
For another example, turbine water wheels were made the
subject of research by eminent French engineers, who, previous to
the middle of the past century, commissioned and aided by their
government, laid down laws and scientific rules to govern the
construction of these important machines. It was, no doubt, the
most thorough and successful attempt of the kind ever made, and
134 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
produced the three types of turbine water wheels known as the
Fourneyron or outward flow, the Jonval or parallel flow, and the
partial turbines or impulse wheels of Girard.
About 1850, the subject was taken up in this country by two
American engineers, Boyden and Francis, who constructed, at
Lowell, Mass., what have remained, to the present time, the finest
examples of Fourneyron turbines on this continent. Mr. Emii
Geyelin, a French engineer, came a little later to Philadelphia and
introduced the Jonval type of turbines. The Girard type or partial
turbines have not been successfully exploited in this country, if we
except the wheels lately erected at Niagara Falls.
Here was a complete mathematical development of water tur-
bines, carried out to a skilled construction and to operate at the
greatest efficiency. The subject of the water turbine seemed ended,
and the writer, who was then engaged in that bygone occupation
called "millwrighting," assumed and claimed that this art, at least,
had culminated. And so it had, in so far as efficiency was con-
cerned ; but there was another phase to be dealt with in the operat-
ing conditions.
The French turbines were refined machines, exact, expensive
and adapted for pure water. Our streams are mostly in flat lands,
fluctuating and turbid. Gravel, driftwood and other kinds of
debris would not pass through the fine issues of the new turbines,
and American mechanics began, in an experimental way, "whittling"
out new models. In the French wheels, the running, finished and
expensive elements were outside and occupied the extreme diameter,
while the rough and inexpensive fixed elements were placed in-
ternally and were of relatively small diameter. This resulted in
expensive construction and a slow rate of revolution, requiring
strong and expensive gearing for transmission.
So accustomed were engineers to associate centrifugal effect
with turbines, that radial or outward flow seemed an essential
condition, when, in fact, it had little or nothing to do with the case.
This was found out by experiment and should have been evident
from the beginning.
The American mechanics, after many years of "whittling" out
models, succeeded in turning the wheels "inside out," or inverted
them, so to speak, making the internal or smaller elements the run-
ning part, so that the water flowed inward toward the center, then
changed its course 900 downward in helical passages for escape.
This was done entirely without scientific aid, in some cases even
controverting scientific rules, and the result is the centripetal or
inward flow turbine, the standard water wheel of this countrv, of
PHENOMENA OF MACHINE OPERATION. 135
which a single firm has made more than 10 000, and the wheels have
even found their way back to France. Their efficiency is fully equal
to. or even greater than, that of the older types, and the cost of the
wheels is about one-half as great. This evolution has required
about sixty years, and present practice rests mainly upon observed
phenomena and upon the operating conditions rather than upon com-
puted data. There was not even a draughtsman in the works where
were made the wheels that gained the highest award at the careful
trials conducted at the Centennial Exposition, in 1876.
This whittling method, as it has been called, was certainly
slow and unnecessary, but was followed by shrewd mechanics in a
roundabout way at great and unnecessary expense in money and
time. At least, this is the way the matter seems to us now, but we
are undoubtedly proceeding in like manner in the case of many
other less intricate machines, as posterity may point out.
In respect to the Girard type or impulse wheels, Weisbach and
others had contemporaneously, or earlier, investigated the laws
that govern the effect of impinging fluids, and such laws were care-
fully observed in the development of partial turbines in Europe,
where such wheels are now the standard type for the open or im-
pulse class ; but on this coast, mainly by reason of very high heads or
pressures and the accurate work required in wheels of this kind,
there commenced, about twenty-five years ago, a modification sug-
gested by the peculiar operating conditions, producing a new class,
known as the "tangential" type.
The development of this was, to a great extent, another case
of "whittling" out models, and the old experience had to be gone
over again. Notwithstanding that a good deal of scientific data,
relating to such water wheels, was furnished at the beginning by
Professor F. G. Hesse, of the University of California, the phenom-
ena of operation continued to be observed, and from various clues,
modifications were made, down to 1900, when it was discovered
that the double buckets could be passed into and out of the stream
by once dividing it. Other final features in the design of such
wheels were noted also. They have since taken on the dress and
finish of proper design and workmanship.
In the case of elastic fluids, impulse motors or steam turbines
have been more than a century in evolution, notwithstanding that
more than 400 separate patents have been granted in Great Britain
alone for inventions pertaining to these machines, some of them
a century ago and many of them fifty years ago. Mr. Parsons,
an eminent English engineer, who has been prominent in this work
during later years, is, no doubt, one of the greatest living adepts in
136 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
the science of thermodynamics, and, as is claimed, he has forecast
with much accuracy the development of his turbine schemes as they
progressed from 48 down to 11 pounds of steam for each horse-
power hour, but it is also claimed that he has expended half a
million dollars in experiments. He has probably expended more
than this.
If inquiry were made, Mr. Parsons would probably admit that
not one-fourth of his data came from computed sources, and that the
observed phenomena of operation and adaptation have comprised
the other three-fourths.
I might mention Lenoir's gas engine, the first of the internal
combustion class. I examined an old engine in 1870, the first suc-
cessful one, and I strongly suspect that, aside from the operating
phenomena, this machine has furnished suggestions for nearly all
improvements since, except perhaps the graduated combustion in
the Drayton and Diesel types, yet in evolution, owing to impedi-
ments that arise in construction.
A wider and more important example of evolution in operating
phenomena is furnished by piston steam engines. I do not mean
the thermodynamic development of these, which is the greater part,
furnished mainly by scientific deduction and experiment, but to the
mechanical evolution of their operating parts, which had to keep
pace with the thermal problems.
The "elimination of the speed factor," as our worthy President
calls it, not only in the rotative, but also in the reciprocating parts
of such engines, is a wonderful example of experimental develop-
ment.
Down to twenty-five years ago, it was a common object, in
steam-engine design, to reduce surface and velocity in bearings,
partly to avoid friction, and partly because reduction of weight and
space were also incentives, but the operating phenomena of machine
bearings was a mystery in so far as any scientific rules were avail-
able.
Forty years after the publication of General Morin's experi-
ments, which established a generally accepted law of friction, we
find that alignment and pressure were considered subordinate when
compared with surface in bearings.
Alignment, or the fit of bearing surfaces, especially in the case
of cranks, is yet a mystery, if considered in a practical way. The
most careful computations, respecting the flexure of shafts, frames,
crank disks and pins, fail to disclose the operating phenomena.
One has only to observe the center of an overhung crank or disk,
even of the strongest proportions, to see that it describes a visible
PHENOMENA OF MACHINE OPERATION. 137
ellipse when under heavy strain and for reasons not explainable
by computation. French makers of steam engines so dread this
phenomena that, I believe, none of them employ overhung cranks.
Similarly obscure operating conditions existv in various other
parts of steam engines, and proportions are, beyond question, based
more upon observed operating phenomena than upon computed
dimensions.
Bearings that operate under steam, slide valves for example,
were scraped to a perfect fit ; cylinders were bored out with a smooth,
glistening surface under a belief that such fitting was theoretically
correct, but, by accident mainly, it was found that the bearing sur-
faces performed much better when they were not smooth and in
perfect contact. A film of interposed water or oil produced the
uniform fit.
In crushing hard material, such as quartz, with metallic sur-
faces, it was naturally inferred that the metal opposed to the stone
should be as hard as possible, but, for reasons not easy to explain,
soft metal endures longest. Cornish rollers are now covered with
rings or tires of soft, fibrous iron. The sand blast discloses a like
phenomena. It is easier to bore a hole through a file with the sand
jet than through a thin sheet of copper. An emery wheel will
rapidly cut away tempered steel, but not soft iron. It is a problem
of friability, no doubt, but is not fully explained.
The whole field of mechanics is full of unexplained phenomena
and mysteries, such as the temper of steel, the fatigue of metals,
their crystallization under rhythmic concussion, the inherent strains
in molded steel, the surge and reaction of moving liquids under high
pressure.
The purpose of this short paper is to call attention to the fact
that the conditions of actual practice are often best met not by
machines figured out and determined on a draughting board from
scientific data and thus produced with exactness and success, but
rather by such as have come to us through the long line of evolution
and have been developed mainly by other means than computation.
Much that is written is apt to lead to the conclusion that sci-
entific calculation alone suffices, in machine design, without the
exercise of logical reasoning and practical observation of the operat-
ing penomena and the conditions of use. Academic institutions
should, at least, temper their theoretical instructions with the re-
quired warning that the phenomena of the operation of machines
must be a principal factor in their successful evolution.
138 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Thomas Morrin. — For efficiency, electrical apparatus,
in very large units, requires large bearing surfaces, reducing
the journal friction to a minimum. The first arc-light dynamos
used in this city had extremely small diameter journals which pro-
duced a high journal pressure and excessive heating, which was,
to a great extent, the cause of much unsatisfactory operation at that
time. Now we never hear of it.
Another important feature along this line is the necessity, in
alternating generators of high frequency, of a perfect revolution ;
that is, there should be no difference in the rotative velocity in any
segment of the circle described by the revolving member of a
dynamo in any part of a complete revolution. This is necessary
where two or more dynamos are run in parallel on separate shafts
driven by as many different engines, or water wheels.
All this apparatus must be provided with sufficient journal
surface to allow of rotation on a fixed center for very long periods
without any material deviation in any direction. This refinement
has been developed by the requirements of the electrical apparatus
of recent years.
Prof. W. F. Durand, of Stanford University. — The only
point which has occurred to me is the difference which may result
in the design of a certain line of machines, having in view economy,
efficiency and mechanical ideal.
The solution may be so complex that it is of no use whatever
from a commercial point of view. What I particularly thought
of was the Page typesetting and distributing machine. It is said
that something over a million dollars was expended, and as yet
there are in existence only two or three machines. It is a mechani-
cal marvel, capable of achieving the most astonishing results, setting
up type by using a keyboard like a typewriter. This machine is
a mechanical typesetter, taking the place of a human being, de-
tecting broken type, etc. However, just about the time when it
was approaching mechanical perfection, the linotype machine came
upon the market and realized the same purpose by a very much less
expenditure in money, by the development of the block of type set
in line.
We also have the monotype machine. The solution realized
by the linotype or the monotype is far ahead of the early type, as it
is a commercial success.
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 139
THE MAN AND THE SHIP.
By George W. Dickie, President of the Technical Society of the Pacific
Coast.
[Read before the Society, March 3, 1905.*]
I have decided to give this lecture under the general title of
"The Man and the Ship ;" first, because my friends usually ask me
to do so, and, second, because I think the Pacific Coast needs good
men and the Pacific Ocean good ships.
The grandest development in men and ships will, I think,
mark the beginning of the twentieth century for its epoch, and the
Pacific for its stage.
In this lecture, however, I am not to deal with any pictures
of future developments, either in men or in ships, but rather to in-
dulge in some reflections that have often occupied my mind while
striving to accomplish two very important tasks — that of building
good ships that will stand the "Battle and the Breeze" and building
for myself a character that will carry me through the storm and
stress of life's struggle.
We will inquire how these two things can go together. It
needs a shipbuilder to understand how one-half of this subject can
match the other, so I will have to ask my audience to trust me for
the shipbuilder's half. As to the other half — that is, the man — you
can take him for just what you think he is worth, only he goes with
the ship.
By a man I desire to be understood as meaning a whole man,
complete in every particular. Not a male man or a female man,
but the combination of both, is my understanding of a man ; and my
ship is to be a first-class ship of the line, which ordinarily is referred
to in the feminine gender, as she or her, and yet she is a man-of-
war.
The difference between man and woman, as we find them in
society, and what might correspond to them in ships, has, by a pro-
cess of evolution going on in our time, become rather faint, and,
in some advanced cases, scarcely distinguishable.
Not so very long ago, in naval ship society, the frigate was
a consort to the man-of-war, and these two were "useless each with-
out the other." The power of the frigate lay in manoeuvring and in
speed; she could always outsail the man-of-war, just as the woman
can outsail and manoeuvre all around a man. She, the frigate, was
* Manuscript received March 9, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
12
140 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
built on finer lines than the man-of-war, full and buoyant in the
breasts, with a fine midship section, and gracefully rounded but-
tocks. These were desirable qualities in the frigate ; and what a
power she had to carry canvas ! A frigate of the first class, under
full sail, was a sight that never failed to stir the heart of an old
man-of-war's man ; and has it not always been the ambition of
every man worth the name to have his consort carry all the canvas
he could afford to deck her in?
But times have changed with frigates and with women. The
old-time frigate has become a cruiser. Her rounded breast lines
have taken the form of a wedge, with a torpedo tube in the edge
of it ; the fine midship section has been swelled out to hold boilers
and coal bunkers ; propeller wheels have taken the place of the great
swelling sails, and the gracefully rounded buttocks have given place
to the sharp stern line, so that there may be no eddies to affect the
action of the wheels.
Like the old frigate, the modern woman has also become a
cruiser, and she no longer plays a second part to her consort of the
line. Her ability to carry canvas, owing to her new design, has
been very much reduced, and those fitted with propeller wheels have
had to dispense with all superfluous canvas, clew up the lower
courses, and, where the channels are clear and there are no obstruc-
tions to navigation, they may be seen on fine days making good
time with their wheels under bare poles.
With this much by way of introduction, it is my purpose in this
lecture to compare the chief characteristics of a first-class man
and a first-class man-of-war, and in this comparison I shall divide
the subject into two sections, each having a group of characteristics
which can be compared with each other.
The first group will be of qualities inherent in the design of the
battleship — qualities which cannot be altered, but which may be
modified by acquired qualities in her equipment corresponding to a
group of inherent qualities in the man ; those characteristics which
were born with him, and which he retains through life, subject to
modification by education and experience, but never to be entirely
eliminated.
The second group will be the fighting and endurance qualities
given to the battleship, represented by her propelling power ; how
long the source of this power will last ; her means of offense and of
defense, and the personnel of her complement.
In the man, this group of qualities is represented by education,
power of will, industry, regard for truth and right, and faithfulness
to dutv.
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 141
The naval architect, in beginning his design for a first-class
battleship, or for any other form of ship, must, like the architect of
a building, decide first on the foundation. As the size and weight
of the building determine the character and extent of the foundation
required, so the size and weight of the battleship determine not
the character of the foundation, for that is always the same, but
the amount of the foundation.
On a foundation of piles and concrete on the lake front of the
Columbian Exhibition, at Chicago, there was a full-sized model of
a battleship built of brick and mortar ; but such a deception was pos-
sible only on a lake where the water is always on the same level. The
foundation was not a ship foundation at all.
The naval architect calls his foundation "displacement," and
his unit of measurement for his foundation is 35 cubic feet, because
that volume of sea water weighs one long ton.
In order that what I have to say in regard to my battleship
may have a definite meaning, I shall take the qualities of the battle-
ship "Oregon" as standard in this lecture.
The very first question the designer had to answer was, "How
deep shall my foundation be?" The depths of certain docks and
harbors must be considered in reaching a decision, and, knowing
where the vessel had to go, this was fixed at 24 feet. This depth
of foundation must therefore carry the structure he is to build.
Having this important point settled, he must now get informa-
tion from other experts ; so he calls on the engineer for the weight
of all the machinery the foundation must carry; on the ordnance
expert for the weight of all the armor, guns and ammunition the
foundation must carry for him ; on the equipment expert for the
weight of all the outfit the foundation must carry for him ; and then
he figures out very carefully the weight of the structure itself, after
which the experts must meet and decide how much weight of coal
and stores and people must also be carried by the foundation. After
which the whole is summed up, and the result is that the foundation
must carry 10,400 tons.
He must now consider how wide his foundation will be. The
position of the weights that he has to carry, above the base line of
the foundation, help him to determine this dimension. Here, also,
he consults all the gathered experience of his profession with the
type of ship nearest to the proposed design, the result being that he
decides on a width of 69 feet.
Now, if he had to build simply a rectangular structure, the
weight of which was 10,400 tons, he would find that, at 35 cubic
feet to the ton, the contents of the foundation would be 364,000
142 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
cubic feet ; and, the depth having been settled at 24 feet, and the
width at 69 feet, the length would therefore be 220 feet. This
would be the smallest dimension of foundation that would carry
the load, and it is called the box displacement ; that is, a box 24
feet deep, 69 feet wide and 220 feet long if filled completely full
would contain 10,400 tons of sea water.
Here a great many considerations present themselves to the
designer. He knows that an increase in the length would give him
fine lines and speed, with moderate power, but would detract from
other qualities that a battleship should possess ; and, speed not being
everything in a battleship, he again has recourse to experience, and
this tells him that the ratio between the length of his battleship
and that of a box must be somewhere between 1 to 0.6 and 1 to 0.65.
So he decides on 0.631, and this makes the length of our battleship
348 feet. This ratio between that part of the ship which is in the
water and a box is called in America the box coefficient, and in
England the coefficient of fineness.
On this foundation of displacement rests our battleship, and it
is absolutely sure, if the weights are correct ; but, if the weight ex-
ceeds by any amount the designer's figures, the foundation gives
way correspondingly. The designer, therefore, must be sure of his
weights, of his dimensions and of his coefficient of fineness, or
his foundation will fail him. His ship will displace not an inch
more than is provided for by the form and dimensions he has given
her. If he makes an error either in weight, in form or in dimensions,
some other desired quality must be sacrificed.
A man, like a battleship, is supported by his own displacement ;
and, if he is to hold his own in the battle of life, with freeboard
enough for winter weather, he must have a high box coefficient.
His only foundation on the sea of life is his power of displacement.
A man, when launched into the world, finds no empty place made
ready to receive him. No one scoops out a hole in the water to
receive the ship ; when launched she must displace her weight of the
element into which she plunges. So a man displaces his weight
of whatever element is opposed to him.
This law is as true of him as of a battleship, with only this
difference: that the ship displaces but one thing, and by that she
is supported ; but man's power of displacement has no limit in kind,
and in degree it is limited only by the bulk of the man.
What we, as individuals, are displacing is the coefficient of our
power for good or evil on this earth. What we, as a community
or nation, are displacing will be the coefficient of the power for
good or evil of that nation on the human race.
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 143
In our designs for manhood, let our box coefficient, be it great
or small, stand for the displacement of wrong by right ; or of error
by truth ; of ignorance by knowledge ; of idleness by work ; of dead
things by living things ; of weakness by strength ; of sorrow by
joy, and of all evil things by things that are good. We must not
forget that our power to do good in this world is simply our power
to displace evil by the coefficient of our own goodness.
The displacement of the man, like that of the ship, is his
foundation ; that is, his character.
Having determined the amount and dimensions of the founda-
tion that is to support the man-of-war, the naval architect must now
deal with another quality — that of stability. Here a somewhat
more complicated set of problems confronts the designer.
In a building, the more stability the architect can secure the
better; but in a man-of-war, too much stability would be quite as
undesirable as too little. It is therefore the business of the naval
architect so to work out his design that the proper amount of
stability will be attained.
Stability and steadiness do not always go together in a ship ;
in fact, they are sometimes quite opposite qualities. To secure
steadiness, stability must be present ; yet a ship may have a high
stability, and, notwithstanding (in fact, because of extra stability),
may be a very unsteady ship.
The stability of our man-of-war depends upon the positions,
relative to each other, of two points ; of these, one is the center of
motion, the other the center of mass. The architect calls one the
metacenter, and the other the center of gravity, and he expresses
the stability of his design for a ship by the sign of an M above a G,
and the distance between these points he expresses in feet and
inches.
The metacenter is the point around which the ship moves in
rolling. If only the seasick unfortunate could find that point he
might there find relief. The naval architect finds it by taking the
center of buoyancy of each of the sections he has made of his ship,
and therefrom finding a mean center of buoyancy. The metacenter
will always lie in a longitudinal vertical plane, bisecting the ship,
and vertically over the center of buoyancy, and its position is found
by dividing the moment of inertia of the load water plane, relative
to the middle of the vessel, by the volume of displacment ; that is,
by the amount of foundation.
I do not expect you to understand this ; it is not at all necessary
that you should. So long as the naval architect understands it, you
will be perfectly safe in taking his word for it.
M4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The captain, who is to command this man-of-war, does not
know, perhaps, how to find this important point in his ship ; but
the way in which she behaves herself at sea will soon enable him to
determine whether it is in the right place or not.
Then the center of gravity must be carefully determined by
the designer; and to do this he draws a line under the keel, and
this he calls the base line; and, having found the position of the
metacenter, he notes it as so many feet above the base line. Now he
begins a series of computations in regard to the weight of every part
of the ship ; nothing must be left out. He also finds the center of
gravity of every piece, and its height above the base line. He ex-
presses the weight of every piece in tons, and its height above the
base line in feet. He multiplies these two factors by each other,
and expresses the result in foot-tons ; and this is termed the moment
of leverage of that particular piece.
Having thus determined the weight and leverage of every part,
the total amount or foot- tons, divided by the displacement or
foundation weight, will give the height of the center of gravity
above the base line.
I do not expect you to understand this either, and it is not
necessary, but the naval architect must understand it very thor-
oughly, or the result may be very serious, indeed.
The stability, then, of a man-of-war, or of any other ship,
depends upon how much the M is above the G in her design. If
they were both in one place there would be no initial stability, and
the ship would remain in any position that she might accidentally
get into ; and if G were above M she would turn bottom side up.
This is initial stability, and it is an inherent quality in the
design of the ship. It may be modified, after the ship is built, by
taking in weights below, if G is too high, or by putting weights
above, if G is too low ; but the necessity for such corrections always
reflects on the skill of the designer.
Now, initial stability is an inherent quality in the man, and
without it he is a helpless hulk on the sea of life. His metacenter,
like that of the ship, is the point around which he swings, the center
of his affections. His center of gravity, the weight of those things
that he carries about with him, must be kept well below the center
of his affections, else there will be nothing stable about him. If
his box coefficient be high, and his dimensions large, he may carry
great weights of this world's goods. So long as their moment of
leverage is not too great, and their combined center of influence
is kept well below the metacenter, their effect may be beneficial,
making him more comfortable at sea. So long as our earthly pos-
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 145
sessions, real estate, cash accounts, and other heavy things are
carried in the lower 'tween decks, with a good metacentric height,
our stability will be improved, and not impaired, by the load we
carry. So long as we keep M well above G in all the vital matters
of our life, we may safely put to sea with everything on board.
Through ignorance of the laws that govern the stability of a
ship, those in charge of her often stow weights on board in such
a position as to endanger her stability, going to sea only to meet
disaster.
So a man often takes into his life things that he cannot carry.
Let us be careful that those things do not lower our metacenter.
Far better throw such weights overboard than struggle at sea with-
out stability. So let us set our affections, that is our M, well
above G.
A man-of-war or any other ship may have a large amount of
initial stability, and yet be very unsteady at sea. If the ship is
intended for river or harbor navigation, and is never to encounter
rough water, then the more stability the better; but when amid
waves, if the metacenter be too far above the center of gravity, the
tendency to assume an upright position may be too great, and
violent rolling may be the result.
In designing a man-of-war, great value is placed upon steadi-
ness of platform ; for, if that cannot be secured, she might have to
fight under sea condition which would give her opponent, if a
steadier ship, a fatal advantage.
So the naval architect tries the design he has made, in order
to see whether her righting moment is sufficient and not too great.
When he inclines or heels his design, relative to the normal water
plane, he finds that the sections show that on the one side a wedge-
shaped piece goes down into the water, while another wedge-shaped
piece comes out of the water on the other side. These two wedges
are called the wedge of immersion and the wedge of emersion.
Now, if these two wedges were equal, the ship, when thrown out
of the upright position by waves, would not come back again. But,
if the wedge that goes in is greater than the wedge that comes out,
the difference is called the righting moment, or power of shoulder,
and if this is very great, the ship, when thrown out of the upright
position by waves, would come back too quickly, and would have an
unsteady and violent rolling motion in a sea way.
So the skillful architect will so modify his sections above the
normal water line that the wedge going in will not be too much in
excess of that coming out, and he will thus secure easy motion in
rough water.
146 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
This question of steadiness receives careful attention in the
designs for a war ship, because the weights to be carried are all
known, and their positions are fixed in the design. The water
line also is known, and it changes only with the consumption of fuel.
But in a merchant ship, the designer has not so full control over the
quality of steadiness, as a great range must be provided for in the
position of the water line, and consequently much of the sea steadi-
ness of such a ship will depend upon a skillful distribution of the
cargo.
A man, like a ship, may have inherently great stability of
character; his metacenter may be far above his center of gravity.
In all ordinary conditions of life, he maintains an upright position,
and, if smooth water prevail all through his life experience, his
character will be admired, and others will point to him as a fine
example of uprightness and stability. But let him get out into the
open sea, amid the storms of life, where waves are high and great
forces oppose themselves to him and his ways. It is then that his
stability often degenerates into mere stubbornness ; his righting
moment is too great. Instead of rolling gently to the irresistible
waves that beset him, and swinging gracefully back again to the
upright position, when the wave has spent its force, he gathers
all the power of his stability to fight against the natural forces
around him, shipping huge seas in his desperate efforts to maintain
his upright position ; and, should the storm continue, he is apt to go
down, a martyr to his own faith in inherent stability, to his sense of
right.
As the naval architect tumbles the high wall sides of his ship
home — that is, inside the perpendicular — to reduce the righting
moment, and thus make her steady amid waves, so the man out at
sea, when the storms gather about him, will find safety and comfort
in tumbling home ; there his rolling will be easier, and there he will
have a steadier platform from which to fight his enemies.
Along with steadiness in rough water, the naval architect
must so design his ship as to secure great range of stability ; that
is, he must maintain a righting moment sufficient to bring his ship
back again, should she by some unusual force or combination of
forces be forced far out of the upright position (and he generally
constructs a curve or diagram that shows how far his ship can roll),
and yet retain the power to recover her normal position.
In a man, I think that range of stability is a better and more
desirable quality than initial stability without the power to recover
a lost position when once driven from it. The man who, when
beaten down and almost overwhelmed by opposing forces, still has
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 147
this righting power intact — that principle within him that tends for
righteousness — this man comes triumphantly through the struggle
of life, while another, with greater initial stability, but with little
range of righting power, might be utterly undone. ^
Having thus settled the matters pertaining to the hydraulic
and statical questions that affect both a man and a man-of-war,
the naval architect must then determine on the best possible use he
can make of the weights allowed him for the hull proper. His
skill in doing so determines the structural strength of the ship.
In a man-of-war or line-of-battle ship, a very large proportion
of the displacement, which, as we have seen, is the foundation or
support, is given up to carry heavy armor for defense, and a power-
ful battery for offense; so that, of the total displacement, just about
one-third is available for the hull structure itself. Great skill is
therefore necessary in making a proper disposal of the material
forming the hull. The usual method of framing, adopted on a
merchant ship, where simplicity and cheapness of construction are
considered first, does not apply in a man-of-war. Here the material
is disposed relative to the strains, and so that its strength will be
utilized to the fullest extent; and certain dangers to the life of a
battleship, such as a shot under the water line in some unprotected
part, or a torpedo attack, must be provided for by many water-tight
compartments, and by a double skin. There must also be special
structural provision to carry the armor and to receive the mounts of
great guns ; so that the hull of a man-of-war must be able not only
to withstand the complicated strains due to the movement of the
ship in a sea way, but must also support great weights of armor,
and the shocks due to the firing of great guns. Much of our battle-
ship's efficiency, therefore, depends upon her structural strength.
The man, like the ship, depends very much on structural
strength. If he does not start out with a sound body, which is the
hull that must carry all his means of offense and defense, he is apt
to be worsted in the struggle of life. A good constitution for the
man is, to him, what structural strength is to the man-of-war ; and,
if he starts in life with such a precious possession, he must be
careful to preserve it.
The hull of the man-of-war, built, as it is, on the cellular
principle, will deteriorate very rapidly if not properly cared for.
Every part must be cleaned and painted frequently, to prevent cor-
rosion and consequent waste. The naval architect may have pro-
vided a perfect structure, to begin with, but want of care may
render all his wise provisions valueless.
The man, like the ship, is also constructed on the cellular prm-
148 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ciple. Men of science now tell us that he has grown, by a process
of evolution, from a single simple cell to his present complicated
structure of living cells, and it requires the greatest care on his
part to preserve this wonderfully complicated cellular structure in
order. His equipment may be first class in every respect ; he may
have a powerful battery of all kinds of knowledge ; but he cannot
successfully carry it into the battle of life if he has neglected to
care for his hull. If dirt has been allowed to accumulate in the
bilges and double bottom of his life, corroding the whole structure
of his manhood, then, when the day of battle comes, he will not be
able to carry his battery into action ; and that not because of any
original defect or structural weakness, but because he neglected to
obey the rules of the service, which require him to see to it that no
part of his hull suffers from waste, other than that due to fair
wear and tear.
A ship of imperfect construction, where an unskillful distribu-
tion of the material has been made, resulting either in loss of
strength, or in the carrying of useless weight, may, by being well
cared for, and never overloaded, outlive another ship, constructed
with the utmost skill, where every pound of material has been
located in its proper place, but where neglect has undone all the
skill of the architect.
So a man may start in life with a defective construction of hull,
his structural material poorly disposed for effective work ; yet by
care and good management he may outlive, and do better and more
effective work than, another man who starts with a perfectly con-
structed hull, where every part is proportioned to its work, but
where neglect, as in the case of the ship, has undone all the skill
of the architect. Constant care of the structure is the price of
safety in the man and in the ship.
I must now consider the second division of our subject — the
qualities imparted to the man and to the ship by the things placed
in them or given to them. This suggests the propelling power,
and how long its source of supply will endure.
In naval language this is called the radius of action.
Propelling power and how long the source of its supply will
last determine the radius of action, both for the man and for the
ship.
While speed is not the most important thing to be considered
in a battleship, yet it is of so much importance that as much space
and as much weight as possible, without curtailing other and more
important qualities, are devoted to propelling machinery and to coal
bunkers.
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 149
The great displacement and moderately full lines of the battle-
ship require large engine power for moderate speeds. First-class
battleships are generally supplied with one horse power for each ton
of their displacement. Cruisers are generally supplied with two
or more horse power for each ton of displacement. The battleship,
as a rule, however, has a larger coal capacity than the cruiser, and
is therefore able to steam farther from the source of supply. The
distance a battleship can steam, without receiving fresh fuel, is
called her radius of action. This quality is considered, by naval
men, of the first importance. If, for instance, a United States
battleship and a Japanese battleship, both of the same class, were
enemies, and they should both leave their home ports at the same
time for a cruise on the Pacific ; and should they sight each other,
say 30 days thereafter, the one that had the best supply of coal left
would, so far as ships went, have the best chance of victory.
Large bunker capacity and economical propelling engines are
therefore of great importance in a battleship, as these are the lead-
ing features in securing a great radius of action.
The battleship may, however, leave her home port with bunkers
full of good fuel, and with economical engines in first-class order ;
but, if the fuel is wasted in driving at full speed just to see what
a wave she will make, and if forced draught is resorted to, simply to
get up a little excitement on board, the discovery may be made,
when the enemy is in sight, that the bunkers are empty and the
propelling power useless.
In the battleship there are two kinds of coal bunkers, the
reserve coal bunkers, which are situated above the protective deck —
these, as a rule, would not be accessible in time of action — and the
ready-service bunkers. These are on the same level with the
fire rooms, and open into them, and are to be depended upon in
battle. A prudent commander, in time of war, will see that the
engineer keeps his ready-service bunkers well filled, so that, in case
of a surprise, time will not be lost in getting coal from the reserve
bunkers.
In a man, as in a man-of-war, the propelling power is of great
importance, determining, as it does, his radius of action. As the
propelling power is the heart of the battleship, from which she ob-
tains life, so the man's heart is the propelling power of his life. If
he be fitted with a well-balanced triple-expansion heart, and if,
as he leaves his training port, the protected home harbor where he
was built and fitted out, all his reserve bunkers are full of the
best hand-picked fuel, and his ready-service bunkers are full of
sound principles, then he need fear no enemy ; but if he wastes
150 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
the precious contents of his bunkers in useless excitement, ruining
his boilers by forced draught, straining his engines for the sole pur-
pose of making a big wave in society, then the enemy may find
him with empty bunkers and a weathered heart.
The naval architect, in designing the battleship, has provided,
as far as possible, against any failure in the propelling power, by
arranging his ship to receive twin propellers, and a complete double
set of engines, alike in every respect ; and the power of the ship
is the combined power of the two. For the best progress, therefore,
they must both work together ; but, if one be disabled, the other can
still do its work in propelling the ship.
The all-wise Architect, who made man, saw that it would not
be safe for him to be single, so he was designed for twin screws,
having a complete double set of machinery, port and starboard ;
that is, "male and female created He them." There they stand,
side by side, in the engine room, resting on the same foundation
bed ; and, to get the best speed out of the man, they must work
together, and in the same direction. If one goes astern and the
other ahead, there will be nothing but a twisting movement in the
man, and racking strains that are sure to give trouble. If one goes
fast and the other slow, the man will not show his best speed ; but
should one be disabled, the other must do its best to land the man
safely in port.
There is a great element of safety in the twin screw principle,
both for men and for ships. Many a man and many a ship has
managed to pull through life on the single principle ; but, let any-
thing happen with the propelling power — with the heart, as it were —
and they are either among the missing, or they may be picked up
at sea disabled and towed into port. Should that happen, in the case
of either the man or <the ship, salvage claims are likely to exceed the
value of the property.
Two sets of triple-expansion engines are necessary for the
battleship, in order that she may safely carry the flag as far as her
fuel will last, or into battle, and hand her name down to the ages
on the naval roll of honor.
Two sets of triple-expansion hearts are necessary for a complete
and seaworthy man, so that he may safely meet the struggles of
life, and preserve his name and honor to posterity.
Another quality, necessary both to the man and to the battle-
ship, if they are to be serviceable, is adequate means of defense.
In the man-of-war or battleship, to which I refer, the naval architect
provided an armor defense of the most modern design, and required
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 151
it to be constructed of the most effective material yet invented, to
resist penetration by shot from an enemy.
When shipbuilders began to build iron-clad ships of war, the
armor protection was carried the full length of the ship, as it was
desired to make everything about her safe ; but other inventors, just
as skillful as the shipbuilder, were at work on the means to penetrate
the protection that had been built around the ship ; and, as guns
became more powerful, the armor defense had to be made thicker
and heavier, until the displacement (that is, the foundation) failed
to carry it ; and so it came to pass that the whole length of the
ship could no longer be covered by armor, even when face-hardened,
which would resist an armor-piercing shell from the modern gun.
So the designer of our man-of-war adopted what is known as
the citadel type, the main feature of the design being that the heavy
armor protection extends only over the vital parts of the ship,
protecting the engines, the boilers, the big guns forming the main
battery, the intricate mechanism that operates them, and the maga-
zines. This armor is all Harveyized or face-hardened steel, which
has been proved as to its ability to resist penetration, even at short
range, and by the most powerful guns.
This citadel of heavy armor is about 200 feet in length, and the
armor of the lower part, or side belt, is 18 inches thick. The armor
of the bulkheads, forming a parabolic curve at each end, is 14 inches
thick. At each end of this structure, and rising directly above the
bulkheads, is a circular redoubt or barbette, with walls 14 inches
thick and 12 feet high, protecting the base of the revolving turrets,
and the intricate hydraulic machinery that operates them. Above
these redoubts rise the upper portions of the great revolving turrets,
35 feet in diameter, each weighing 400 tons and having armor 12
inches thick.
Above the heavy belt armor I have described, the sides are
plated with 5-inch steel armor, forming a casemate for the protec-
tion of the crew and upper works against the attack of rapid-firing
secondary batteries, so fatal to unprotected quarters.
Above this upper belt of armor rises the superstructure, with
armored sponsons for four 6-inch guns ; and, at each corner, still
higher, so as to fire over the roofs of the great turrets, are mounted
the four armored turrets for the 8-inch guns which proved so effec-
tive in the destruction of the Spanish fleet off Santiago.
This man-of-war of ours carries more and heavier armor than
any other battleship in the world having the same displacement or
foundation, and foreign naval designers have wondered how we
have managed to get so much on our foundation of 10.400 tons.
152 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
In the ends of the vessel, beyond the armored citadel, there are
numerous storerooms, where wet and dry provisions, all clothing
and equipage, besides the personal effects of officers and crew, are
carried. The rooms where the officers live, and the quarters for the
crew, are also outside the armored citadel.
A man, like our man-of-war, must also have, if he is to be a
true, safe and noble man, an armor-protected citadel, on which his
safety will depend in time of battle. His storehouses, into which
he packs his earthly belongings in ordinary times, and while cruis-
ing peacefully on the sea of life, are very necessary and convenient
for his comfort in and enjoyment of life. But no man has displace-
ment enough to carry armor protection for these. If he sets him-
self to protect these things, then, in time of battle, he must leave un-
protected the most vital things of his life.
The true man must therefore have a citadel, within which he
places his propelling power — that is, his heart ; the boilers, which
furnish his power of will to do the right thing and keep in the
right course ; his magazines of truth — those things which he must
stand by — the shot and shell with which he fights every power of
evil that seeks his destruction. Around these vital elements of his
being, he must dispose whatever armor the great Architect has
furnished him with, so that, in the day of battle, when the final test
is made of his power to endure the onset of the adversary, and to
stand fast, no matter what may happen in his armored citadel, the
great principles which govern his life may be carried through the
fight, and nothing given up to the enemy but what can be readily
replaced when the battle is over.
In the battleship, even life itself is not the first thing to be
considered. The life of the crew is protected by a casemate of 5-
inch armor, while the vitals of the ship are protected by 12 inches of
armor.
So, with a man, there should be some things that are more than
life. There are the great truths that he believes and holds more
sacred than life itself, and around these he will concentrate all his
powers of resistance, knowing that, if he meets death and these live
on, the victory is his. So, whatever power we have to resist the fire,
let it be concentrated around the most precious and enduring things.
But, for a man and for a ship which have to fight their way
through life, there must be means of offense as well as of defense.
Hence, for the ship we have been considering, the naval architect
provided a powerful battery, of both great and small guns. He
also designed magazines and shell rooms, properly protected by
armor, to carry a great store of ammunition, with ample means for
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 153
handling both the guns and the ammunition for serving them
properly.
The great battleship, which I have had in mind throughout this
lecture, has a main battery consisting of four 13-inch breech-loading
rifled guns, mounted in two revolving turrets, one at each end of the
armored citadel. These turrets are worked by hydraulic machinery
within the armored redoubt. There are eight 8-inch breech-loading
rifled guns, mounted in four revolving turrets, protected by 8-inch
armor. These turrets are operated by steam machinery, placed
down under the belt armor line.
There are four 6-inch guns mounted in the superstructure,
and protected by 5-inch armored sponsons. These guns are trained
by hand. This constitutes the main battery, which is more power-
ful than that carried by any other war ship on the same displacement
or foundation.
The secondary battery consists of twenty 6-pounder rapid-fire
guns, mounted all around the upper line of the superstructure, their
position being protected by the hammock berthing; that is, a line
of double walls of plate steel, between which the sailors' hammocks
are packed, forming a protection against the fire of small guns.
It was for the purpose of carrying this great battery into action,
and using it effectively, that this great ship was designed. All her
other qualities have been devised and worked into the general design
for this purpose. That battery and the armor that protects it
were designed not for the wanton destruction of some poor, weak
antagonist that could not return blow for blow. It was all devised
by the designer to protect the honor of that flag that waves so
proudly above it, and to stand for defense of the right. For this
purpose the naval architect prepared his plans, balancing one force
against another, working harmony out of their contending elements.
The engineer, for this purpose, installed, in the center of this great
structure, his mighty engines for propulsion, the beating heart of
the whole. For this the ordnance expert conceived the wonderful
and intricate mechanism to handle ammunition, and to operate guns
and their mounts. For this purpose the electrician planned, and
placed far down in the bowels of this mighty structure, the electric
generators that supply the subtile fluid, the nervous system of this
great machine, that gives light to the dark places, and motion to
many wonderful contrivances. By it the eye of the projector is
illuminated and its movements controlled, enabling the commander
to pierce the gloom of the blackest night.
The optician not only planned the instruments wherebv the
154 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
navigator can tell where his ship is, but a range finder also, whereby
the position of the enemy can be determined.
All this and very much more are brought into play, in order
that the battery and its protecting armor may be brought success-
fully into action, and that the cause it represents may be triumphant.
In a man, as in a man-of-war, all his qualities must be trained
for the purpose of enabling him to carry his battery successfully into
the battle of life. Many contending forces and antagonistic powers
have to be brought to work together for the end in view.
In all our planning for a complete and efficient manhood, we
must, like the naval architect, set the forces in couples against each
other, taking care that the righting forces will more than balance
the heeling forces, training the body — that is, our hull — to properly
carry the mental battery with which it is equipped. Sacrifices
must be made of many cherished possessions, or of acquired habits,
to make room for more important things that cannot be left out
if our battery is to be efficient in time of battle.
A man-of-war is a complicated combination of compromises,
and so is a man. We can carry no more than our displacement rep-
resents, and we shall not be able to realize, in action, all that we
had planned, and sacrificed for, to obtain.
But we can so carry our battery — that is, the mental caliber
with which the great Architect of our being has endowed us — into
the battle of life, that, however the battle may go with us, whether
it be victory' or defeat, it shall not be disgrace.
Having thus noticed the material elements in the man and in
the ship, I may be permitted, in closing, to devote a few words to
the crew complement of the ship, and to the personnel of the man.
In this lecture, I have endeavored to compare the material
elements entering into the character of the man and into the struc-
ture of the ship. We have examined the foundation supporting
each ; the stability due to dimensions and to the height of M above
G; the steadiness, due to form combined with the qualities that
produce stability ; the structural strength ; the radius of action ; the
armor and armament ; and we have endeavored to show how the
qualities that go to make a good ship are like those that go to make
a good man.
But neither a good man nor a good ship will accomplish much,
unless handled by an intelligent and faithful crew that knows the
power and capacity of the mechanism it is to operate. The crew of
a gunboat is not expected to accomplish, with the means at its dis-
posal, what is expected from the crew of a battleship ; nor is the
will power of the man who has a small displacement, with little
THE MAN AND THE SHIP. 155
protecting armor and a light battery, expected to accomplish as
great things as the man of strong will power — a man of great charac-
ter behind strong armor, with an intellect of great caliber and maga-
zines full of rich experience.
Yet, whatever be the size or power of either man or ship,
each is expected to accomplish the purpose for which he or it was
built and equipped ; and this they can do only if the crew comple-
ment of the man-of-war and the personnel of the man are of the
right kind.
If our man-of-war is not commanded by a brave, wise and
prudent captain, who knows what kind of ship he commands, her
power and capacity, with all its limitations, her best trim and best
speed, what class of enemy she can meet and battle with, and how
the battle must be fought if the victory is to be gained; if the ex-
ecutive officer has not an eye to the efficiency of all the working
force of the ship, testing everything often and in all weathers,
taking nothing for granted, but by personal inspection keeping, at
all times, familiar with every detail, so that the hour of struggle will
find everything in working order ; if the navigator fails in his duty
to find out every day the true position of the vessel, the position of
all dangers, the force and direction of all currents ; if he does not
keep his course worked out ahead and plotted on the chart for
guidance ; if the watch officers do not keep their eyes open for every
danger that surrounds them, that no lurking torpedo boat gets near
enough to discharge its deadly weapon, or enemy get within range
without the captain's knowledge ; if the engineers fail to keep in
perfect order all the machinery under their care, so that any sudden
call for the best that such machinery can do can be responded to ;
if the ordnance officer has neglected to see that all the mechanism for
training, elevating and controlling the guns is in good order, that the
ammunition hoists are operative, that his telescope sights, range
finders, battle-order transmitters, and all other things on which
so much depends in action, are all as they ought to be ; if the doctor
neglects the health of the crew, and if, in consequence, they become
inefficient — then, in the hour of battle, our well-planned, strongly
built, magnificently equipped battleship will be found wanting; all
the talent expended in its production will be lost, and the flag that
it carries disgraced, because the power that willed to do failed.
As it is with the man-of-war, so it is with the man. If the
will in command be weak, cowardly, or vacillating; if it either
fails to order aright, or orders at the wrong time ; if the executive
force that carries the will power into execution cannot be depended
upon when he knows the right thing to do ; if the navigator's skill
13
156 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
is so defective that the man never knows where he is, or what
dangers surround him, or from which side the enemy is likely
to attack him; if he goes through life in an aimless sort of
way, with no watch on deck to keep him warned of danger ; if
his machinery is neglected ; if his affections are all adrift, with no
center for his heart to work upon ; if he cannot respond to a call
for a supreme effort in time of battle ; if his ordnance, with all its
delicate mechanism for training his • best thoughts against the
powers of evil, is inoperative through want of practice ; if he has
taken no care of his health ; if he has contracted habits destructive
of discipline and all proper management of himself — then, no matter
how well he was planned and equipped, his record in life will be
a failure.
The great Architect planned and equipped this wonderful
organism of ours, with its vast possibilities, placing us in command,
having the freedom of our own wills, and launched us out on the
sea of life, amid dangers and storms, with enemies on all sides, and
yet with powers of offense and defense sufficient to carry us trium-
phantly through every struggle. Let us but be faithful to our high
calling, and see to it that whatever power we possess shall be kept
in good working order and ready for action ; that none of it shall
be squandered in idleness and self-gratification ; that, be our power
or influence great or small, it shall be expended for the purpose of
setting wrong things right and making crooked things straight and
sad hearts happy.
Only this kind of use, made of our lives, will give us satisfac-
tion and please the great Architect who planned us.
OBITUARY. i57
OBITUARY.
George H. Wallis.
Member of the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.
On Sunday, March 19, 1905, death called from us one of the
prominent members of the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast,
Colonel George H. Wallis, one of its directors, who had served
faithfully for several terms in this capacity. He was stricken down
suddenly while reading- a newspaper after breakfast, apparently
in good health and in excellent spirits. He was 68 years old.
Colonel Wallis was a veteran of the Civil War, a member of
George H. Thomas Post of San Francisco, from the hall of which
he was buried on Tuesday, March 21st, with military honors. In
his civil capacity he was the chief engineer of the American Steel
and Wire Works, with headquarters at San Francisco. He was a
man of great mechanical skill, of sound judgment and of very
clear-headed business sagacity. No one was better liked than Col-
onel Wallis for his gentle, genial manner and his ever-ready courtesy,
so manifest a characteristic of the true type of the educated gentle-
man of the old school.
The Technical Society of the Pacifie Coast feels this loss keenly,
and will prepare suitable resolutions in memory of its friend and
counselor.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
IVIAF=
Showing the locations of the Societies forming
THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
(Each dot represents a membership of one hundred, or fraction thereof over fifty.)
Editors reprinting articles from this journal are requested to credit not only the Journal,
but also the Society before which such articles were read.
Association
OF
Engineering Societies.
Organized 1881.
VOL. XXXIV. APRIL, 1905. No. 4.
This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for the
statements or opinions of members of the Societies.
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER WITH ANTISEPTICS.
By E. H. Bowser, Member Louisiana Engineering Society.
[Read before the Society, November 14, 1904.*]
While there are facts indicating that efforts were made to
prolong the life of the timber used in structural work, by means
of antiseptics, as early as 400 B.C., still, so far as we know, no
very satisfactory results were obtained until the decade between
1830 and 1840. Many of the processes which came into use at
that time, though somewhat effective, have practically been
abandoned.
The only preservatives that have stood the test of time and
that are used to any great extent at present are chloride of zinc
and dead oil of coal tar, the latter commonly called creosote oil,
though it contains no true creosote.
The chloride of zinc treatment is not nearly so common in
this country as creosoting, and it is used almost solely for the
preservation of cross ties. This treatment is not very effective,
except when the timber is kept comparatively dry, as the
chloride is very soluble in water and will soon leach out in a
damp climate, or when placed in water. It is of no value what-
soever for the protection of timber or piles against marine worms.
This chloride was first brought into extensive use by Sir
William Burnett in 1838, and it has from that time until the
present been more or less used. On account of the man who
promoted its use, the process is known as Burnettizing. Ordi-
narily, the solution for this process is composed of 2\ per cent.
* Manuscript received March 31, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
i6o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
of zinc chloride and 97 £ per cent, of water. One of the principal
recommendations for the use of this process is its cheapness.
The zinc solution is often combined with other substances
with the object of preventing the chloride from being affected
by moisture. In the Wellhouse process the chloride is mixed
with the usual amount of water and creosote oil is added to this
mixture. In the Allerdyce process the timber is first treated
with the chloride of zinc solution and then, after letting it dry
for a few days, or, without taking the Burnettized timber from
the cylinder, it is treated with about 3 lbs. of creosote oil. The
theory is that the outer pores of the wood are filled with the
creosote oil and this keeps the moisture from coming in contact
with the chloride.
Another method of zinc treatment which is used to a con-
siderable extent by the Mexican Central Railroad at Aguas
Calientes, in Mexico, is the zinc-tannin-glue process. The timber
is first treated with the chloride of zinc, the liquid is then drawn
off, and a weak solution of glue is run into the cylinder; when
this is drawn off a solution of tannin is put in. The theory
of this process is that the glue gets into the outer portion of
the wood, and the tannin hardens the glue, making it insoluble
in water.
The bichloride of mercury, also called corrosive sublimate,
and sulphate of zinc were formerly used for preserving wood,
but the former is used very seldom, and the latter probably not
at all. The worst feature of any of the metallic salts that have
been used for preservative purposes is their solubility in water,
which decreases their effectiveness very much when the treated
timber is buried in damp ground or exposed to the action of the
weather. Of course, none of these salts are at all effective when
the timber is placed directly in the water.
The first authentic record we have of the use of creosote oil
for the impregnation of timber in order to preserve it from decay
is in 1756, though the value of rosin, tar and pitch was known in
ancient times.
It was not, however, until John Bethell of England in-
vented the process of injecting oils or other liquids into timber
that creosoting was placed upon a practical basis. From that
time until the present, the creosoting process has been con-
stantly gaining favor and is universally recognized as being by
far the best process for the preservation of timber, in the earth,
in the water, or in the air, and it is the only process that is effec-
tive against the destruction of timber by the Teredo navalis,
or other marine worms, and insects. For the benefit of some of
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 161
you who may never have visited a creosoting plant, I will
explain the present method of creosoting, as done in this coun-
try, and give an idea of the appliances used.
For simplicity, we will take a one-cylinder plant. A com-
mon size of cylinder is 6 ft. diameter and ioo ft. long. There
are, however, several cylinders in this country 9 ft. in diameter,
and one of these, located in New Orleans, is 172 ft. long, and,
I think, is the largest creosoting cylinder in the world. A 6-ft.
cylinder should be made of flange steel five-eighths of an inch
thick, with horizontal seams triple riveted, and girth seams
double riveted. The lengths of the rings are usually 6 ft., one
sheet of metal making the entire ring. The cylinder is mounted
upon supports about 2 ft. above the floor so as to allow for pipe
connections underneath. The ends are sealed by hinged doors,
generally made by riveting hemispherical boiler-plate heads on
cast flanges, though probably a better door is made of cast steel
slightly convexed and ribbed. The doors for a 6-ft. cylinder
are fastened by 36 bolts 2 in. in diameter. There is a circular
ridge on the face of the door flange 2 in. wide and \ in. high,
which fits into a corresponding groove, on the face of the cylin-
der flange, three-eighths of an inch in depth. Cotton or asbestos
webbing is placed in the groove so that when the door is closed
and bolted it is steam tight.
In the bottom of the cylinder is a track upon which the
trucks loaded with timber are run. Between the rails of this
track are from 12 to 18 i-in. steam pipes, extending from one
end of the cylinder to the other. Often there are steam pipes
on the sides just below the center of the cylinder. These pipes
are connected at the ends with return bends and coupled to a
steam pipe from the boiler. The heating pipes should be divided
into three or four disconnected groups, causing less condensa-
tion of steam than would occur through a long series of pipes
and allowing any one or two of the groups to be cut off should
a leak occur during the process of treatment.
A leaky pipe can be very easily detected when the steam
or oil pressure is on, by the leakage of the steam or oil through
the open end of the pipe. When steam is passed through the
coils for heating timber during the vacuum or heating the oil
when it is in the cylinder, the coils should be open at the exit end
during the vacuum and open or slightly throttled during the
injection of oil.
Connected with the cylinder from the bottom, generally
near the middle, there should be a 6-in. suction pipe leading to
the vacuum pump.
i62 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
At the top of the cylinder there should be a 3 -in. pipe which
leads to the discharge end of the oil pump, the suction end of this
pump being connected by a 4-in. pipe with the measuring tank.
Between the measuring tank and the cylinder there should
be a 10-in. pipe connection and also the same size pipe between
the cylinder and the underground or dumping tank. These
pipes can be connected just before entering the cylinder to save
an extra opening.
For supplying steam to the cylinder there is a 2 -in. pipe
which is coupled at the shell of the cylinder to a i-in. pipe
which lies along the heating pipe coils, the i-in. pipe being per-
forated with small holes throughout its length to dissipate the
steam when it is turned into the cylinder upon the timber.
The heating coils are also attached to the 2-in. pipe.
Finally, there is a vertical pipe of from 4 to 6 in. in diame-
ter leading from the top of the cylinder through the roof.
This is a blow-off pipe for letting out the steam after the timber
has been steamed sufficiently. All of the pipes are, of course,
supplied with the proper cut-off and check valves.
Upon the bulkheads at the ends of the cylinders are laid
tracks upon which the trucks are loaded. At one end of the
cylinder the untreated timber is loaded on the trucks and at
the other end it is unloaded after it is treated. The side where
the timber is loaded is usually called the " white side " and
where it is unloaded, the " black side."
The measuring tank is usually about 20 ft. in diameter and
from 20 to 25 ft. high, and rests on a tank frame 12 to 14 ft.
above the ground. The oil in the measuring tank is kept hot
by means of i-in. steam pipe coils inside of the tank. These
pipes are hung vertically in pairs coupled at the bottom with
return bends and hanging at intervals of about 5 ft. The tank
is supplied with a float and gage so that the depth of oil in
tank is always shown.
The underground or dumping tank is usually of the same
capacity as the cylinder. It should be buried deeply enough
in the ground to be covered with sufficient earth to prevent it
from floating up when empty, if there is water in the ground.
The dumping tank and other storage tanks used should have
heating coils, as in cool weather more than 50 per cent, of creo-
sote oil, containing the amount of naphthalene ordinarily speci-
fied in contracts, is more or less solid.
A pump is needed between the dumping tank and the
measuring tank so that the oil can be returned to the latter tank
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 163
after a treatment is made. In a two-cylinder plant this pivmp
should be of large capacity to prevent delay.
Oil received in tank cars or barrels can be dumped directly
into the underground tank and then transferred by means of
the pump into the measuring tank or storage tanks. There
should be a derrick or traveling crane at each end of the works
for loading and unloading the trucks.
The most economical handling of the material is, of course,
where it can be unloaded directly from cars to the trucks and
after treatment unloaded from the trucks and put directly on
cars for shipment.
For pulling the train of loaded trucks into and out of the
cylinder a hoisting engine is used, with proper ropes, cables and
blocks.
The complete process of treatment used almost universally
in this country at the present time is as follows:
The timber is loaded on the trucks and drawn into the cylin-
der by means of a wire cable which is fastened to the rear end
of the load, and passes under the trucks, and around the sheaves
at the end of the unloading track to blocks and tackle, the fall
line of which is fixed to the drum of the hoisting engine. The
cable has a coupling near the front end of the load and the part
lying under the load is left in the cylinder. As soon as the
doors are closed and bolted, the steam is turned into the cylinder
and kept there under the required pressure for from ten to
eighteen hours, according to the amount of oil required.
The treatment under consideration is supposed to be of
freshly sawed timber and not seasoned at all. Seasoned timber
requires no steaming.
The steam is turned off at the proper time and the con-
densed water in the bottom of the cylinder is blown out before
the steam is exhausted through the pipe at the top.
When the steam is all out the vacuum pump is started and
kept going for from five to eight hours, the vacuum being
brought as quickly as possible to a gage reading of from 22
to 24 in. During this process steam is passed through the
heatmg coils.
When the vacuum pump is stopped the oil, heated as hot
as it can be gotten by steam pipe coils containing steam under
little or no pressure, is admitted into the cylinder and as soon
as it is full a reading of the tank gage is taken, and the pressure
pump is started. When the pressure gage registers about 150
lbs. the pump is generally held at that until the timber has
i,64 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
received, according to the gage, the proper amount of oil. The
oil is then dumped into the underground tank and pumped back
into the measuring tank. The difference in the reading of the
tank gage before the oil is put into the cylinder and after it is
pumped back into the measuring tank, gives the exact amount
of oil injected into the timber. This can never be gotten
exactly till after the treatment is completed, as during the fill-
ing of the cylinder, the pores of the wood being under a vacuum,
some oil is absorbed and, of course, the amount of this absorp-
tion is not shown on the gage readings between the filling of the
cylinder and the completion of the treatment. This absorption
will sometimes amount to as much as 2 or 3 lbs. per cu. ft.
The theory of this process is that the steam opens the pores
of the wood and liquefies the sap. The heat in the coils during
the vacuum vaporizes the moisture in the wood and this vapor
is taken off by the vacuum pump. The vacuum being in the
wood when the oil is admitted draws more or less oil into the
pores and the pressure from the pump forces in the remainder
of the oil required. If dry heat could be used in the heating
coils and in the cylinder, and the treatment by that method
would require no longer time, it would be a vast improvement
over the present method. The great trouble would be in obtain-
ing the heated air as cheaply and in regulating the temperature
as exactly as can be done with steam.
Timber can be injured by being subjected to too high a
temperature in steaming. I would recommend the following
steam gage pressure for steaming' timber and piles:
Least dimension 3 in. or less 30 lbs.
,, ,, 6 in. to 8 in 35 lbs.
,, ,, 8 in. and more 40 lbs.
Piles for teredo water 50 lbs.
I do not think that the temperature due to these pressures,
when applied for the length of time usually employed in creo-
soting, will injure the timber in the least. For teredo water I
think the steam pressure shown for piles in teredo water is better
than a lower temperature.
While the treatment of timber with creosote oil has been
widely practiced for more than sixty years, no absolutely definite
decision has been reached as to the best kind of oil to be used
for this purpose. Creosote oils differ considerably in their con-
stituent parts and it has never been fully decided what propor-
tion of these constituents the best oil should have. Until
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 165
recently the greater number of experts on creosoting have con-
sidered that naphthalene was the most important constituent in
the oil, and nearly all of the specifications in this country stated
that there should not be less than 40 per cent, of naphthalene
in the oil. Lately, however, many of them are advocating a
preponderance of the heavy oils beyond naphthalene in the dis-
tillation, and consider the latter substance of no importance
whatsoever. This is largely due to the fact that naphthalene,
though insoluble in water, vaporizes at all temperatures, and
it is claimed by parties who have made tests with specimens of
treated timber that in tirne all of it passes from the wood.
Whether this is correct or not, the experience of the Louisville &
Nashville Railroad Company shows that oil with a large amount
of naphthalene in it is good oil for the preservation of timber
both from decay and from the teredo, when the material is well
treated. I am, however, of the opinion that the heavy oils are
preferable to the naphthalene though I do not think it has been
proven beyond a doubt. The great trouble is that it takes thirty
years to properly test a preservative. Outside of its use in
creosote oil, about the only commercial value of naphthalene is
for manufacturing moth balls, and as the manufacturers of
creosote oil naturally wish to get rid of their naphthalene, and
moth balls give them a very small market, possibly this fact
has had considerable influence in making it prominent as the
principal preservative in the oil.
I have received oil from the foreign market that had as
much as 75 per cent, of naphthalene, and it was solid in the
barrels in warm weather. It was impossible to give good treat-
ment with this oil as it could not be gotten thin enough with
steam heat to penetrate the wood, and it had to be mixed with
lighter oil before it could be used.
The ordinary analysis of creosote oil is by simple distilla-
tion, it being necessary to use reagents only when the amount
of tar acids in the oil is to be determined. To make this dis-
tillation, an ordinary 200-gm. glass retort is used and the heat
applied by a Bunsen burner or a special laboratory lamp where
gas cannot be obtained. The products of distillation are col-
lected in the test tubes in the usual way and the percentages
determined by weight. One distillation is all that is required,
but a second distillation will, of course, give more refined results.
I give below the products that come off at different tempera-
tures, a centigrade thermometer being used:
166 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Up to 1700 water, hydrocarbons and phenols . liquid
1700 to 2050 phenols and creosols solid and liquid
2050 to 2100 phenols, creosols and naphthalene solid
2100 to 2350 naphthalene, chiefly solid
23 50 to 2400 naphthalene and anthracene ... solid
2400 to 2700 anthracene oil liquid
2700 to 3 1 6° anthracene oil and anthracene . . solid and liquid
3 1 6° plus pitch solid
An analysis of oil from the Barrett Manufacturing Company,
made in 1899, is as follows:
850 to 1700 I
1700 to 2050 7
2050 to 2100 7
2100 to 2350 53
2350 to 2400 s
2400 to 2700 9
2700 to 3160 3
3 1 6° plus 11
Loss
This oil at the time it was used was considered to be fine
oil for creosoting purposes. With the large amount of naphtha-
lene in this it would require all of the light liquids shown to
make it thin enough to enter the wood. It would, however,
have been a better oil if it had a little less light liquid, less naph-
thalene and more heavy oil beyond 2600. Here is an analysis
of a sample of Scotch oil made the first part of this year :
Up to 1700 7.48
1700 to 2050 9.91
2050 to 2450 44.03
2450 to 2700 1403
2700 to 3200 12.36
3200 to 4200 3.80
Residue 8.39
Specific gravity, 1.028 at 400 C. Tar acids by volume, 12.25 Per
cent. According to the old standard for oil in this country
there is too much distillate up to 2050 and too little between
2050 and 2450. The remainder of the distillate would have been
very satisfactory as there is somewhat more than 25 per cent,
above 2600.
The lack of naphthalene and too much light liquid gives a
low specific gravity. If the distillation shows the oil to be good
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 167
the specific gravity will always be right. Taking into consid-
eration its preservative qualities and also the extra expense
of using an oil that differs very much from the natural product
of the works from which creosote oil is obtained, I would recom-
mend the following specifications for oil:
" Water to the extent of 2 J per cent, shall be allowed in the
oil without compensation. Any amount of water over 2 J per
cent, and up to 8 per cent, shall be compensated for by the injec-
tion of a proportionately greater quantity into the timber. No
oil containing more than 8 per cent, of water shall be used. The
specific gravity shall not be less than 1.04 at a temperature of
350 C. It must not yield more than 10 per cent, of its weight
by distillation up to 2100 C. Between 2100 C. and 2350 C. the
distillate shall not exceed 30 per cent, by weight, nor shall be
less than 25 per cent. At least 30 per cent, shall not distill
until after 2600 C. has been reached. The thermometer is to
be kept about one-eighth of an inch from the oil during distilla-
tion."
I am sure these specifications would give an oil that would
be satisfactory for all purposes and would last either in teredo
water or in any other situation.
Any wide departure from the natural by-product of the dis-
tillers, of the residual liquids from gas works and coke retorts,
would increase the expense of the oil very materially by the
extra manipulation and the reduction of the natural output
by the wasting of some of the constituents of the oil.
The supply of creosote oil does not always equal the demand.
Four years ago the chief engineer of the Louisville & Nashville
Railroad was paying as high as 1 2 J cents a gallon for oil and could
not get it as fast as needed. The price just previous to that
time was six cents per gallon. If all the creosoting works had
been in full operation this year the available supply would have
been exhausted by the middle of the year if it had been evenly
distributed. At the first of this year, just before the railroads
began to cut down expenses on account of lack of traffic, there
was only 300,000 gals, offered in this country for delivery during
this year, and practically none was for sale in England, where
nearly all of the foreign oil in this country is purchased.
The distillation of slack coal from the mines is becoming an
industry in this country, but it is receiving somewhat of a check
from the fact that some of the ore-smelting operators claim that
the coke obtained is not so good for their purpose as that made
in open coke ovens. Without the sale of the coke, the distilla-
tion of coal for other products would be unprofitable.
168 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
As to the lasting qualities of creosoted timber, every engineer
knows that it has been fully demonstrated.
Some very fine specimens of creosoted work can be found on
the line of the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, between Scranton
and New Orleans. Large numbers of piles in the bridge piers
on this line are in teredo water, have been there more than
28 yrs., and are still in a perfect state of preservation. Many of
these piles are in places where they would be unsafe in 3 mos.
if put in the water at the beginning of the teredo season. Re-
cently in rebuilding these bridges it became necessary to cut off
a few feet from the ends of the piles to get them low enough
for the new superstructure, and nearly all of them were in as
good condition as the day they were driven. The few that had
been affected had been broken or split by collision from boats,
or by coming in contact with floating timber or drift wood dur-
ing storms.
In the Louisville & Nashville Railroad wharves in Pensa-
cola Bay there are a great many creosoted piles driven 23 yrs.
ago which are still in use and in good condition.
About as satisfactory a record as I know of, is that of a
long line of telegraph poles in England which were treated with
only 8 lbs. of oil per cu. ft., and from a thorough examination
after they had been in use for 30 yrs. not a single one of them
was found to be affected by decay. These poles were naturally
seasoned before treatment. This, no doubt, gave slightly better
results than steaming would have done. Ordinarily 12 lbs. of
oil per cu. ft. are used for telegraph poles, though sometimes only
10 lbs. are used.
At West Pascagoula, Miss., before the burning of the creosot-
ing works last year, there was a telegraph pole treated in 1877
which was in a perfect state of preservation. Unfortunately,
it was burned down to the ground at the time of the fire. I
judge from the appearances that this pole was treated with
more oil than is generally used for this class of work.
In this section pine is the only wood used for creosoting,
and, with the exception of the lower grades of oak for cross ties,
pine is used universally in all parts of the United States for this
purpose.
I give below a schedule showing the proper amount of
oil per cu. ft. to be put into timber used for different pur-
poses:
Foundation timbers and lower floor joists for buildings,
fence posts and cross ties 10 lbs.
THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 169
Bridge, wharf and culvert timbers natural and sawed
telegraph poles, cross-arms and wooden ducts for
electric wires 12 lbs.
Piles for interior work 16 lbs.
Sawed timber for teredo water 18 lbs.
Paving blocks 20 lbs.
Piles for teredo water, as much as can be put into the
timber, in no case less than 22 lbs.
There is not the least doubt that well-creosoted timber will
last considerably longer than 3oyrs., and I venture to say that
a heavily treated sap-wood pole would last at least 6oyrs.,and,
possibly 100 yrs., if not destroyed by other agents than decay.
An untreated sap pole would begin to decay at the ground in
about six months, and would generally be rotted through and
through in two years.
It must be borne constantly in mind, however, that to be
thoroughly effective, creosoting must be well done. This is an all-
important point about creosoting work, and it is a thing that
can be very easily slighted by the carelessness of an inspector,
or the carelessness or culpability of the operators of a creosoting
plant.
Parties having creosoting work done must depend more or
less upon the honesty of the contractors doing the work, even if
there are a dozen inspectors employed who thoroughly under-
stand the process of treatment. No one knows exactly what is
going on in the cylinder, no matter how closely he watches it.
Sometimes accidents will occur that will cause bad treatment
without the operator finding it out.
I have the record of one load which turned out bad, while I
was superintendent at the West Pascagoula Works. This was
sheathing for a dredge boat. In one year the teredos com-
pletely riddled about two-thirds of this sheathing. Either
through the carelessness of the engineer in charge at the time, or
through some accident, the proper amount of oil did not get
into the lumber, but I could not trace the cause. Of course,
such occurrences as these are comparatively rare. Unless work
is intentionally slighted for profit, it can be done properly by
any one who understands the work, but it requires very close
and constant attention to details.
Good oil in one treatment may be bad oil in a succeeding
one. For instance, the breaking of one of the pipe coils in the
measuring or the underground tank may, in a very short time,
put a great deal more water into the oil than good treatment
will allow. To get the best results a test should be made for
i7o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
water before every treatment, and the sample should be taken
from the pipe through which the cylinder is filled and drawn con-
tinuously during the filling. Occasionally a sample should be
taken from the discharge pipe of the oil pump when the oil has
nearly all been injected in the timber. In the measuring tank
most of the water is in the upper portion of the oil, but it would
hardly be fair to test an average sample from the measuring tank,
as the oil is drawn from the bottom of the tank, and if the measur-
ing tank has two cylinder loads in it, the upper half of the oil
will contain a very much larger proportion ot water than the
lower half.
At the first creosoting works of which I took charge, I found
there was too much water in the oil, and, after investigation,
found that no steam came from the exit of the steam coils in the
measuring tank, the throttle being nearly wide open at the other
end where the steam entered. This, of course, meant a broken
pipe. All of the steam that went into the oil was condensed.
At another works I found 30 per cent, of water in the oil,
and pumped out about 10,000 gals, of water on the ground.
This water contained about 10 per cent, of oil. At one time
during my management I failed, for a short period, to per-
sonally analyze the oil being used, and an inspector making an
analysis found 17 per cent, of water in one of the tanks from
which we were using oil. There was not, however, a large quan-
tity affected. I mention these incidents so show how easy it is
to get water in oil even when it is not the intention of the oper-
ator to let water accumulate. The most difficult feature in
operating works of this kind is to keep the water out of the oil,
and any one who can invent a suitable process that will do away
with the direct use of steam in the cylinder and coils, will do a
great work in the advancement of the preservation of timber
by means of creosote oil.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. . &i
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETED
By Saxford E. Thompson, Member Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
[Read before the Society, September 21, 1904.]
The data which the speaker has to present to you to-night
deal chiefly with the strength of plain concrete, that is, con-
crete without reinforcing steel. The widespread interest in
reinforced concrete is appreciated and will be referred to before
closing. It is hoped that it will be included also in the general
discussion to follow these remarks. However, in the design and
construction of reinforced concrete, the concrete itself plays a
role as important as does the steel, and the variation of the
strength of this material under different conditions has been
overlooked sometimes in the theoretical study of the combina-
tion of concrete and steel.
As an illustration of the part which the concrete plays in
reinforced beams, we may refer to the recent experiments upon
reinforced concrete by Professor Hatt and by Professor Talbot.
One of the principal objects sought in the tests made by these
gentlemen was the determination of the location of the neutral
axis. Professor Hatt found the neutral axis to be located at a
distance below the most compressed fiber, varying with the
location and percentage of steel from 0.36 to 0.43 of the depth
of the steel. That is, for a beam whose steel is one foot below
the surface and which is tested with a superimposed load, the
location of the neutral axis would vary from 0.36 to 0.43 feet
below the upper surface. Professor Talbot, who employed a
very large range of percentages and types of steel, found a
ratio varying with the conditions from 0.31 to 0.56. If the
location of Professor Talbot's neutral axis is calculated, using
the same constant which must be used for Professor Hatt's,
there will be found no agreement whatever.
The real cause for this disagreement must be determined
by further experiments, but studies which the speaker has made
of the tests convince him that the difference is due primarily
to the character of the concrete. Professor Hatt's compressive
* Many of the tables and diagrams in this paper, together with por-
tions of the text, are quoted from Taylor and Thompson's book entitled
" Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," copyrighted by Frederick W. Taylor,
1905, and with whose permission for the purposes of this paper such
quotations have been made.
i72 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
tests of plain concrete showed a modulus of elasticity of about
4,000,000, which, using 30,000,000 as the modulus of steel,
gives the ratio of the modulus of steel to concrete of 7.5. A
ratio of 8, in the ordinary formulas for the location of the neutral
axis of reinforced concrete beams, where tension in the concrete
is not considered, gives theoretical results nearly identical with
the actual. Professor Hatt used proportions 1:2:4 for his
concrete. Professor Talbot, on the other hand, used propor-
tions 1:3:6 based on loose measurement of cement, which
makes the mixture about 10 per cent, leaner than when pro-
portioned by a unit of 100 lbs. cement to a cubic foot. Now,
in order by calculation to reach ratios for the neutral axis
similar to Professor Talbot's recorded values, it is necessary to
take the ratio of modulus of steel to modulus of concrete as 20,
which represents a modulus of elasticity in compression of
1,500,000. Using this ratio of 20, the calculated location of
the neutral axis is very close to the location as actually meas-
ured. These tests may again be mentioned, having been re-
ferred to now merely to show the necessity for a very complete
study of the concrete itself. The comparative compressive
strength of concrete mixed in various proportions and under
different conditions is of no less importance than its modulus
of elasticity, since the percentage of steel for a reinforced beam
should be governed by the strength of the concrete in com-
pression.
Leaving, then, for the present, the combination of concrete
and steel, let us take up some of the practical tests which have
been made upon concrete and the laws which appear to govern
the strength. Since the strength of concrete is in many cases
determined by the strength of the mortar, the latter must also
be considered.
Laws of Strength. — At the start the points which the
speaker wishes to bring out will be briefly summarized.
The strength of mortar is governed primarily by two
fundamental laws:
(1) With the same sand and the same brand of cement,
the strongest and most water-tight mortar is that which con-
tains the largest percentage of cement in a unit volume of the
mortar after it is in place. In other words, the strength of the
mortar increases with the amount of the cement per cubic yard
of compacted mortar.
(2) With the same percentage of cement in a given volume
of mortar, the strongest, and usually the most water-tight
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 173
mortar is that which has the greatest density, that is, which
contains the lowest percentage of air plus water voids.
The strength of concrete has not been studied so fully, but
sufficient tests are on record to prove also the general applica-
tion of these two laws to this material.
By these two laws, when applied to mortar, are explained
(a) The greater strength of a mortar containing coarse
sand over one containing fine sand.
(b) The advantage of mixed sand in certain cases.
(c) The fact that the sharpness of the sand is of little
importance.
(d) The actual benefit in certain cases of a small admixture
of clay or loam and the deleterious effect of these substances
under other circumstances.
Testing the Aggregate. — But one of the most practical
values of these laws is shown in their application to tests of
the inert material or aggregates (using this term in its broad
sense to include sand as well as coarse material) for mortar and
concrete. Make, for example, mixtures, in the proportion
required, of cement and each of the several dried aggregates of
similar texture which are submitted for comparison, add water
to bring them to a uniform plastic consistency, and the best
aggregate mill be that which produces the smallest volume of
mortar or concrete.
Beside discussing these facts, however, other data will be
briefly presented relating to the growth of strength of concrete,
the effect of consistency upon the strength (this based upon our
own experiments), and the effect of different aggregates upon
the strength of concrete, for example : broken stone versus gravel,
large versus small stone, and hard versus soft stone.
Relation of Density to Strength. — Taking first the strength
and composition of mortars, we are fortunate in having the bene-
fit of the very thorough researches, with which no doubt many
of you are familiar, of Mr. R. Feret of France, published in his
paper on the density of mortar in the Annales des Ponts et Chaus-
sees, 1892, in another paper in Le Bulletin de la Societe pour
d' Encouragement de V Industrie Nationale, 1897, and in his book
entitled " Chimie Appliquee." Mr. Feret's conclusions, many
of which the speaker has checked by experiment, may be made
the basis for practical application in the selection of materials
and in design.
In the paper in the Bulletin, referred to, is given a com-
plete table of mortar tests, a few of which have been chosen
174
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
by the speaker and the values converted into English units in
Table I.
TABLE I.
Feret's Tests of Density and Strength of Mortars Made with
Different Sands.
Sand.
Proportions
by Weight.
Absolute
Volume
Cement.
Density
(c + s).
Shearing,
lbs. per
square inch.
Tension,
lbs. per
square inch.
Compression,
lbs. per
square inch.
D
M
C
i : 3.2
1 : 2.5
1 : 1.8
1 =3.1
1 : 2.5
1 : 2.0
1 = 3-5
1 : 2.4
1 : 1.8
1 : 3.0
1 : o
°-i55
0.186
0.226
oi73
0.204
0.118
0.159
0.195
0.150
°-534
0.760
°-745
0.725
0.703
0.698
0.690
0.603
0.603
0.604
0.689
°-534
2,560
2,790
3,58o
1,810
2,250
2,650
768
1,410
2,130
3,100
3,680
367
421
480
320
368
415
214
302
364
45°
698
4,170
5,210
5,970
2,720
3-430
4,380
1,230
1,940
2,840
4,010
8,040
Note:
Sand G consists -of granitic particles, large and rounded.
Sand S is shelly, with medium-sized grains.
Sand D is from off the dunes, strongly siliceous, fine and
rounded.
Sand M is ground quartz, with angular grains of three sizes artifi-
cially mixed in equal parts.
C is neat cement.
The proportions of cement to sand by weight are similar
in the four mortars selected, but the compressive strength in
the 1: 1.8 mortars, for example, varies from 2,840 pounds per
square inch in the mortar with fine sand to 5,970 pounds per
square inch in the mortar with coarse sand. It is noticeable that
the density * in column 4 differs widely, although the propor-
tions of the original mix are nearly identical. The cement also
in the final mortar, column 3, instead of agreeing with the
proportions in the dry mixture, varies with the character of
the sand. In the 1 : 1.8 mortars, for example, absolute volumes
vary from 0.195 to 0.226, that is, from 19.5 per cent, to 22.6
per cent, of the solid measurement.
The density of the mortar with coarse sand, G, being one-
fifth greater than that with the fine sand, D, it follows that the
bulk of mortar, — which is in inverse ratio to the density, —
*The term density is defined and illustrated in succeeding para-
graphs.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 175
produced with the fine sand, is one-fifth greater than that pro-
duced with the same weight of coarse sand mixed with cement
in like proportions. It is thus evident that a given iveight of fine
sand with a given weight of cement produces a larger bulk of mor-
tar than the same weight of a coarse sand and the same weight of
cement. The truth of this proposition the speaker has proved
over and over again by experiment. The fact, as will be brought
out further on, is of the greatest importance in comparing the
value of different aggregates for mortar and concrete.
The density (compacite) of a mortar is represented by the
total volume of the solid particles — exclusive of the water and
the voids — entering into a unit volume of fresh mortar.*
The " elementary volumes " in a unit volume of fresh mor-
tar consist of the absolute volumes of the cement, sand, water
and voids, each expressed in the form of a decimal. To illus-
trate, the " elementary volumetric composition " of the mortar
in item 3 of Table I., which is mixed in proportions 1 lb. cement
to 1.8 lbs. of natural sand, is:
Cement (c) = 0.226
Sand (s) = 0.499
Water (w) = 0.234
Air voids (v) = 0.041
Total volume = 1.00c
Expressing this in more familiar terms, 22.6 per cent, of
the unit volume of the given mortar consists of solid particles
of cement, 49.9 per cent, of particles of sand, 23.4 per cent, of
water, and the remaining 4.1 per cent, of air voids.
The porosity, represented by the sum of the water and air
voids, is 27.5 per cent. The term voids is often employed to
represent the porosity, that is, the sum of the air and water.
It is obvious that
c + s + w + v = 1;
also that
V = 1 — (c + s + w),
which is equivalent to the statement that the entrained air
in any volume of fresh mortar is equal to the measured volume
of the mortar minus the space occupied by the cement, sand
and water.
* If the word density is applied to sand alone, it means the propor-
tion of the measured volume of the sand, which is occupied by the solid
sand grains; a sand, for example, having under certain conditions 40
per cent, voids, would have a density of 1.00 — 0.40 = 0.60.
1 76 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Method of Determining Density. — The density of the mor-
tar considered is c + s, or, 0.226 + 0.499 = 0.725, as given in
column 3 of the table.
A thorough understanding of the use of these symbols is
essential to the study of strength of concrete and mortar, for
practical tests of strength are of small value unless the density
and exact mechanical composition of the specimens are clearlv
denned.
The method adopted by the speaker of obtaining the density
and volumetric composition of a mortar * gives opportunity to
study different aggregates and proportions as well as the effect
of variable quantities of water upon the same dry materials.
It is applicable also to concrete experiments. For mortar ex-
periments, glass tubes, such as 300 cc. graduates, or deep molds
ma}r be used for measuring the volumes. For concrete a piece
of 6-inch or 8-inch pipe is convenient. The volume of mortar
and concrete of dry consistency will measure the same after
setting as when green, but wet mixtures may be measured before
setting, and again after they have become sufficiently hard to
expel the surplus water. The measurement before setting is
necessary in order to calculate the volume of air bubbles en-
trained in the wet mortar or concrete. The volume after setting,
or partially setting, however, is the only one of real importance
for studying the characteristics of strength, permeability and
cost. The sand is dried, or its moisture is determined by weigh-
ing and drying a sample of it. If stone of a porous nature is
used, the pores of its particles should be filled with water, but
there should be no perceptible moisture on their surfaces. The
quantities of dry materials for a single tube or mold are weighed
in the required proportions, mixed with a known weight of
water, and placed compactly in the mold, whose lateral dimen-
sions have been exactly measured so that the volume of mortar
* The French Commission determine the " yield " of a mortar by
measuring its volume green, that is, just after introduction into the
molds, when an excess of water may affect the volume, and thus give
misleading results with very wet mixtures.
In his report to the French Commission, 1895, Vol. IV., p. 243, Mr.
Feret also measures the mortar wet, but he employs a vessel of known
capacity, — a cylindrical measure whose height and interior diameter
are each about 8 centimeters, — and uses only a portion of the mortar
which he mixes, calculating his percentages by ratio of the weight of
mortar made to the weight of mortar introduced into the measure to fill
it exactly. This method eliminates inaccuracies in measuring the level
of the surface.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 177
in it may be obtained by measuring down from the top. The
exact space occupied by the particles of each of the solid ma-
terials and by the water is calculated, if the metric system is
employed, by dividing their total weight by the specific gravity
of each, or, if English units are used, by dividing the weight
times 1,728 (the number of cubic inches in a cubic foot) by the
specific gravity multiplied by the weight of a cubic foot of water.
After partially setting, the exact depth of the mortar in the mold
is measured and its volume calculated. The percentage of each
of the dry materials, which really determines the density, —
which is represented by the sum of the absolute volumes of
the dry material, — is found by dividing the absolute volume
of each material by the total volume of the set mortar or con-
crete.
The specific gravity of cement which has been stored for
a short time may be taken at 3.10, and the specific gravity of
dry sand at 2.65.
The following example from the speaker's note book illus-
trates the method of finding the density when the measure-
ments are in English weights and measures:
Example. — Find density of a mortar composed of New-
buryport sand and Portland cement in proportions 1 : 2 by
weight.
Solution. — For the mold used, it was estimated that 8 lbs.
cement and 16 lbs. dry sand would be required. Gaging these
with 3 lbs. 12.6 oz. (3.79 lbs.) of water, the quantity necessary
for the desired consistency, the volume of the mortar was found
by measurement to be 348 cu. in. when green, and 336 cu. in.
after setting and pouring off the surplus water. The absolute
volumes are expressed below, first in cubic inches and finally in
terms of the density (c -f s) of the set mortar.
8x1,728
Cement = 7 =71.6 cu. in.
3.1x62.3 '
16 x 1,728
Sand = — 7 a — = 167.4 cu. m.
2.65 x 62.3 ' ^
w 4. 3-79x1,728
Water = 7 =io?.i cu. m.
62.3 0
Absolute volume cement, sand and water, 344 cu. in.
Measured volume green mortar, 348 cu. in.
Volume of entrained air, 4 cu. in.
Percentage of entrained air, i-2 %
Density of set mortar, c + s — H — = 0.213 + 0.498 = 0.711
336 336
178 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Feret's Formula for Strength. — For studying the relation
of absolute volumes to strength, let
P = compressive strength of the mortar.
K = a constant which differs for different cements and at
different ages of the same mortar.
c = absolute volume of cement.
5 = absolute volume of sand.
w = absolute volume of water voids.
v = absolute volume of air voids.
The value of determining the density of mortars is made
evident by the following law of Mr. Feret : *
" For any series of plastic mortars made with the same
cement and inert sands, the compressive strength after the
same length of set, under identical conditions, is solely a function
c c
of the ratio or ; -, whatever be the nature and
IV +V I — (c +S)
size of the sand and the proportions of the elements — cement,
inert sand and water — of which each is composed."
It follows from this law, as Mr. Feret says, that the strength
of any mortar increases with the absolute volume of the cement
(c) in a unit volume of fresh mortar, and also with the density
(c + s), whatever may be the relative volumes filled with water
and air.
From very numerous experiments, such as those in Table I.,
Mr. Feret, starting with the supposition that P is proportional
to - , evolves the approximate formula
IV + v
^(-~y
(i)
By suitably changing the value of K, the formula may be adapted
to either the English or the metric system of measurement.
As a proof of this formula Mr. Feret plots on a diagram,
shown in Fig. i, values of I x ~ 1 for abscissas, and the aver-
age compressive strengths for ordinates. Since in formula i
K is equal to P divided by the square of the quantity in brackets,
the value of K is the tangent of the straight line passing through
the points. In Fig. i
* Bulletin de la Societe d' Encouragement pour V Industrie N ationale ,
1897, Vol. II., p. 1604.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
179
K = 1,965, if the strength is in kg. per sq. cm.;
or
K = 28,000, if the strength is in lbs. per sq. in.
This particular value is applicable only to the cement used
by Mr. Feret in his experiments and to specimens at the age
of five months, but the principles involved are of general appli-
cation.
600
500
. 400
2 300
200
IOC
0.2000
0.3000
0.1000
ABSCISSAS ( -j^) 2
Fig. i. Derivation of Feret's Formula for Strength.
-(Bulletin de la Societe a" Encouragement pour Vlndustrie Nationale, 1897.)
The most practical application of this formula is in the
determination of the relative compressive strengths of various
mortars made from the same cement, with sand in differing
proportions and of different compositions. Mr. Feret calls
attention also to its possible use in laboratory experiments and
specifications. A cement, for example, may be required to
furnish, when mixed with any sand, a definite value of K, since
the value of K is independent of the choice of the sand and of
the composition of the mortar.
iSo ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
The speaker's experiments tend to show that the formula
does not apply strictly to specimens of different consistency, but
that the general law of the increase of strength with the density
is applicable except in extreme cases. The formula is not
exactly correct for tensile tests, although here, too, the general
principle appears to hold good.
A graphical illustration of the relation of density to strength
of mortars is shown in Figs. 3, 4 and 5. These diagrams are
of the triangular form adopted by Mr. Feret, and the curves are
reproduced from his drawings after transforming the values,
where necessary, into English units. A study of the diagrams
will suggest the practical value of the data which may be derived
from them for comparing different mortars.
Fig. 2. Feret's Three-Screen Method of Analyzing Sand.
For those who are unfamiliar with such triangles, Fig. 2
is given to show their construction.
The sand is screened into three sizes, termed G (coarse),
M (medium) and F (fine), and these sizes are mixed in various
proportions. The proportions of a sand expressed as per-
centages, or rather as decimals of unity, are called its granulo-
metric composition. The granulometric composition of any
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 1S1
sand is plotted as a single point in the triangle. The proportion
of each of the three sizes in the sand is represented by its per-
pendicular distance from the side opposite each apex. For
example, exactly at the apex G, the granulometric composition
is g = i.oo, m = o, f = o. A sand represented by the point
" A " in the triangle has for its granulometric composition,
g = 0.48, m = 0.35, f = 0.17. Sand, B, whose point is on the
line GM, is a mixture of G and M with no fine particles.
For comparing a special property of different sands, or of
mortars composed of different sands, each sand employed in
the tests is plotted and labeled with its value, — which may be
in units of strength, weight or volume, — and " contour lines "
are sketched in by the eye, as one would draw contours from
elevations on a topographical drawing.
Any point on the same contour line represents a sand made
up of the different sizes, G, M and F, in proportions corre-
sponding to its perpendicular distances from the sides opposite
each apex, but having the same strength, weight, volume,
humidity, or whatever special function may be represented, as
every other point on the same line.
Fig. 3 illustrates the use of
the triangle for showing the
volumes of sands composed of
different sizes of grains. Any
sand, for example, whose gran-
ulometric composition is repre-
sented by any point on the con-
tour line labeled 0.575 in Fig. 3,
has, when measured loose, 0.575
of its volume, or 572 per cent.
- v v* \j *-o
of absolutely solid matter, or, °' ^ ^" <»'
taking the complement, 42* per Fl£- 3- Absolute Volumes of
0 r _..-„, Sand per Unit Volume of
cent, of voids. In Fig. 3 it will Sand not Shaken.
be seen that the greatest solid
volume of loose sand is obtained by mixing G and F in propor-
tions, 60 per cent. G and 40 per cent. F by weight. The amount
of solid matter in this mixture of maximum density is 0.61 of
the unit volume; in other words, the sand contains 39 per cent,
voids. By interpolating between the contour lines we may see
that a sand consisting of equal parts of the three sizes, which
would be represented by a point at the geometrical center of
the triangle, has about 0.597 solid matter, or 40.3 per cent, voids.
In sands shaken to refusal the mixture of maximum densitv
182 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
consists of sands G and F alone, in proportions about 55 per cent.
G, and 45 per cent F, and the total solid matter, that is, the
absolute volume of sand, in a unit volume of the shaken sand
of maximum density, is 0.798, corresponding to 20.2 per cent,
voids.
Effect of Coarseness of Sand upon the Density and Strength
of Mortar. — As a matter of fact, the actual size of a sand, that
is, the size of its grains, is subordinate, in its influence upon the
strength and other qualities of a mortar, to the density of the
mortar produced from it. One naturally would suppose that
the densest sand, that is, the sand which contains, when dry,
the fewest voids, when mixed with a given proportion of cement,
would make, inevitably, the densest and therefore the strongest
mortar. Such, however, is not necessarily the case, for the
addition of both the cement and water change the mechanical
composition. A mixture of fine sand and cement, for example,
requires a larger percentage of water in gaging than a mixture
of coarse sand and the same cement. The total volume of a
mortar of plastic consistency is affected by the quantity of
water used, as well as by the volumes of the dry materials.
Hence, a mortar consisting of fine sand and cement will be less
dense than one of coarse sand and the same cement, even though
the fine and coarse sands, when weighed or measured dry,
each contain the same proportions of solid matter and voids.
Fine sand has more grains in a unit measure and therefore
a greater number of points of contact of the grains. The water
forms a film and separates the grains by surface tension. The
voids in fine sand also are of smaller size than the voids in
coarse sand, so that the grains of cement may be too large to
enter them, and so force the grains of sand apart, thus further
increasing the bulk of the mortar.
The effect of the water is graphically illustrated by com-
parison of the triangles in Figs. 3 and 4. In Fig. 4 the con-
tour lines show the combined absolute volumes of the cement
and sand in 1 13 mortar (proportioned by weight) made from
sand of various compositions. It will be noticed that the
point of maximum absolute volume, which is labeled 0.734,
is much farther to the left than in Fig. 3, showing that for
a mortar of maximum density, a sand is required containing
more large particles, G, in proportion to the fine particles, F,
than for maximum density with the same sand in its dry state.
This is due to the fact that the fine sand takes more water and
thus forms a larger bulk.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
183
From such experiments Mr. Feret * derives the law that :
" The plastic mortars, which, per unit of volume, contain the
greatest absolute volume of solid materials (c + s), are those
in which there are no medium grains, and in which coarse grains
are found in a proportion double to that of fine grains, cement
included."
Fig. 4. Absolute Volumes of
Solid Materials (c + s) per
Unit Volume of Fresh Mor-
tar in Proportions i : 3 (by
Weight).
Fig. 5. Compressive Strength in
Pounds per Square Inch of
Mortars with Various Mix-
tures of Sand after One
Year in Fresh Water. Pro-
portions, 100 lbs. Portland
Cement to 3.2 cu. ft. Mixed
Sand.
Fig. 5 shows the strength in compression of mortars made
from various mixtures of the three sizes of sand. It is of
interest to note that the curves of strength in Fig. 5 occupy the
same general position as the curves of density in Figs. 3 and 4.
The point of maximum strength in Fig. 5 is farther to the left
than the points of maximum density in the other figures
because the decrease in density produces a decrease in the per-
centage of cement to the cubic yard of mortar, and therefore
the strength is even more affected by an excess of fine material
than is the density.
Practical Applications of the Laws of Density. — It is prob-
able that some of you may question the practical use of all this.
Sand from the same bank usually varies largely in different
places, and even when sands of a uniform character are to be
obtained, it is considered impracticable to mix two or more
sizes on account of the expense involved. In other cases, only
one quality of sand is obtainable, and consequently there is no
opportunity for choice.
* Annates des Ponts et Chaussees, 1896, II., p. 182.
1 84 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
In answer to such criticisms, we outline below several con-
ditions under which the investigation of the physical properties
of the sand is not only interesting, but essential from the stand-
point either of quality or of maximum economy.
(a) If two sands are available, a study of their physical
characteristics will determine which is better suited to the
work in hand as the sand which produces the smallest volume of
plastic mortar, when mixed with cement in the required propor-
tions by dry weight, furnishes the strongest and least permeable
mortar.
(b) The variation of the sand in different portions of the
same bank may be utilized by requiring the contractor to mix
two sizes without exact measurement, so that the material as
delivered shall contain not less than a certain percentage of
sand coarse enough to be retained on a certain sieve.
(c) A good sand brought from a distance at a high price
may be more economical than a poor sand from a neighboring
bank.
(d) The relative value of crusher dust or of sand in a given
locality may be determined by comparing their densities or the
densities of mortars made from them.
(e) Frequently, a mixture of a fine and coarse sand, or of
sand and crusher dust, proportioned according to their relative
granulometric compositions or analyses, may be shown to pro-
duce a better mortar than either material alone.
(/) To produce impermeable mortar or concrete, it may be
economical to screen a mixed gravelly sand into different sizes,
and remix these in proportions which will produce a mortar of
greater density.
(g) The value of " sand cements " for use in mortar and
concrete under certain conditions may be made evident.
All these points may be determined without resorting to
the expensive, tedious and sometimes misleading tensile tests
of sand mortars, except as an auxiliary requirement or for check-
ing the established conclusions.
The use of mixed sand, as described in (b), was adopted by
Mr. Thomas F. Richardson, engineer, for the i : 2 natural cement
mortar employed in the stone masonry of the Wachusett dam,
after an exhaustive study of the comparative tensile strength
and permeability of mortars made with different sands. He
required the contractors to furnish sand so coarse that at least
50 per cent, would be retained on a sieve having 30 meshes per
linear inch. The sand was excavated by scrapers, and the con-
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 185
dition was readily complied with, whenever the sand in one sec-
tion was shown by samples to be running too fine, by taking
alternate scraper loads of coarse sand from another place in the
bank.
Numerous tests have been made in America * in proof of
the general law that coarse sands are stronger than fine. Many
experimenters have seemed to reach the result that coarse sand
is stronger than mixed sand. In certain cases this is undoubtedly
true, because of mixing the different sizes in wrong proportions,
or because the mortar of coarse sand contains so large a propor-
tion of cement that the voids are completely filled, and the addi-
tion of fine sand increases, instead of decreasing, the density.
Mortar, for example, as rich as 1 : 2 {i. e., one part cement to two
parts sand) of coarse sand is as strong, and less permeable, than
mortar of similar proportions made of almost any mixed sands;
but with leaner mortars, a small admixture of from 20 per cent.
to 25 per cent, of fine sand improves it. Natural sand which is
in appearance very coarse almost invariably has a small per-
centage of very fine particles which, with the fine grains of
cement, may assist, in the leaner mixture, in producing a dense
mortar.
Sharpness of Sand. — In the past, all specifications have
called for clean, " sharp " sand, in spite of the fact that in many
parts of the country where sharp sand is not obtainable, sand
with rounded grains is furnished and used with perfect satis-
faction.
Comparative laboratory tests under conditions as nearly
as possible identical uphold the practice of using sand with
rounded grains. They indicate, as may be inferred from the
previous discussion, that the chief difference in natural sands
is due to the size of the grains, and while the sharpness of grain
may exert a certain influence, it is of so much less importance
than the size of the grain that the requirement of sharpness for
sand should be omitted from concrete specifications.
Referring to columns 4 and 7 in Table I., and to Fig. 1, it
is evident that the difference in strength of nearly all the mortars
made with the various sands is explained by the differing per-
centages of cement and densities without reference to the char-
acter of the grains. The only noticeable exception is with the
artificial sand, M, which consists of mixed sizes of crushed
* E. S. Wheeler in Report ; Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., 1895, p.
3013; A. S. Cooper in Journal Franklin Institute, Vol. CXL.,p. 326; Ira
O. Baker in Journal Western Society of Engineers, Vol. I., p. 73.
i86 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
quartz. Mr. Feret * believes that this exception may be due
to chemical action produced by the large quantity (one-ninth
its weight) of impalpable quartz.
Other tests of Mr. Feret f and comparative tests in the
United States of mortar with crushed quartz and natural sands
generally confirm the above conclusion.
Effect of Natural Impurities in the Sand upon the Strength
of Mortar. — A clause to the effect that a sand for mortar or
concrete shall be " clean " is almost universally found in ma-
sonry specifications. The necessity for this requirement is
often questioned by cement experimenters, because the results
of tests of mortar to which percentages of loam or clay have
been added often give higher results than those of mortar made
with cement and pure sand.
As a matter of fact, it is impossible to make a general state-
ment either to the effect that loam or clay is beneficial or that
it is detrimental to cement mortars. In some cases it is un-
doubtedly an actual benefit, while in others the contrary is
true, chiefly depending upon the richness of the mortar and the
coarseness of the sand. Lean mortars may be improved by
small admixtures of loam or clay, or by substituting dirty for
clean sand, because the fine material increases the density.
Rich mortars, on the other hand, do not require the addition
of fine material, and it may be positively detrimental, because
the cement furnishes all the fine material required for maximum
density. This is illustrated in experiments by Mr. Griesenauer +
in which an admixture of even 2 per cent, of loam (based on the
weight of the sand) slightly reduced the strength of 1 : 2 mor-
tar, while 20 per cent, of loam, added to the 2 parts of sand,
reduced the strength about 30 per cent. In 1 : 3 mortar, on
the other hand, the addition of 2 per cent, slightly increased
the strength, and there was no appreciable injury up to 20 per
cent, addition.
In experiments by Mr. E. S. Wheeler, § clay reduced the
strength of neat and 1 : 1 mortars, but improved leaner mixtures.
Strength of Plain Concrete. — Concrete is being used more
and more extensively for structures where its strength and a
* Bulletin de la Societt d' Encouragement pour I 'Industrie Nationale,
1897, Vol. II.
f Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, 1892, II., p. 124.
I Engineering News, April 28, 1904, p. 413.
§ Report of Chief of Engineers, U.S.A., 1895, p. 3004, and 1896,
p. 2827.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 1S7
knowledge of its strength are of the utmost importance. The
laws governing the strength of plain concrete, that is, the effect
of varying the proportion of cement, and the differences due to
the employment of different aggregates, have never yet been
clearly formulated. It is known that 81:2:4 mixture is in
general stronger than a x : 3 : 6, and it is recognized that some
1:3:6 concretes are stronger than others, but the causes of
the variation of strength of different mixtures are, to most of us,
still far from evident. The speaker has devoted considerable
study to the laws governing the relative strength of concrete,
and the results may be of interest as throwing some light on the
subject.
At the outset it must, of course, be borne in mind that the
experimental strength of concrete is not always a criterion for
fixing the proportions of mixture; in fact, most concrete must be
made stronger than the theoretical loading would require. A
lean concrete, for example, although it may gain sufficient
strength before the load is applied, may not be sufficiently
strong at a short period to permit the removal of the molds or
the ordinary wear during building, or, for many purposes, the
lean concrete may be too porous.
It is known that the strength of plain concrete, that is, of
concrete without steel reinforcement, is governed primarily by
(1) The quality of the cement.
(2) The texture of the aggregate.
(3) The quantity of cement in a unit volume of concrete.
(4) The density of the concrete.
The percentage of cement and the density of the concrete
which are of special importance to the user in determining the
proportions of materials, may be expressed more explicitly as
follows :
(1) With the same aggregate, the strongest concrete is
that containing the largest percentage of cement in a given
volume of concrete, the strength varying nearly in proportion
to this percentage.
(2) With the same percentage of cement, but different
arrangement of the aggregates, the strongest concrete is usually
that in which the aggregate is proportioned so as to give a con-
crete of the greatest density, that is, with the smallest percentage
of voids. In many cases relative densities nearly correspond
to relative weights.
Although these laws have been long recognized in a general
way, having been partially proved by experiments of Mr. John
i88 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Grant as early as 1871, but few attempts have been made to
apply them practically in the comparison of strengths of different
mixtures of concrete.
Comparative Strength of Concrete of Different Proportions.
— The formula for strength of mortar derived by Mr. Feret, as
he himself states,* is not applicable to concrete. Our formula
for concrete mixtures is therefore presented as a practical
working formula of sufficient accuracy to compare the com-
pressive strength of mixtures of the same materials in different
proportions. Starting with the principles just laid down, it is
evolved by trial to fit the average results of a large number of
tests made in this country and Europe.
Let
P = unit compressive strength of concrete.
c = absolute volume of cement in a unit volume of concrete.
s = absolute volume of sand in a unit volume of concrete.
g = absolute volume of stone in a unit volume of concrete.
M = a coefficient, constant for all proportions of the same
material mixed and stored under similar conditions, but
varying with the texture of the coarse aggregate and the
age of the specimen.
Then
P=M (I+c_Vg)-o.x) (x)
The absolute volumes, as indicated on a previous page, are
really ratios of the actual volume of the concrete, representing
the actual mass or total volume of solid particles in a unit volume
of concrete. Since ratios are independent of the unit selected,
the absolute units are the same for any system of measurement,
and by changing the value of M, the formula is adapted to
English or metric system. For example, if P expressed in
terms of kilograms per square centimeter requires a value of
M = 880, P in pounds per square inch will require a value of
M = 880 X 14.2 f = 12,500. It follows that knowing for a
given age the value of M and the strength of a concrete composed
of known percentages of materials, it is possible to estimate
the compressive strength at the same age of any other concrete
of exactly known composition made under like conditions from
similar materials, but differently proportioned.
A very slight variation in the values of the terms will so
* Chimie Appliquee, p. 522.
t Ratio for converting kg. per sq. cm. to lb. per sq. in.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 189
largely influence the result that the formula is only useful, on
the one hand, where the specific gravities of the materials and
the weights entering into a unit volume of concrete are deter-
mined so accurately that the absolute volumes can be calculated,
and, on the other hand, for comparison of the strength of differ-
ent mixtures of concrete under assumed average conditions.
For the latter purpose the specific gravity of cement may be
taken at 3.1 and of sand at 2.65, the weight of a barrel of cement
as 376 pounds, the weight of the dry sand contained in a cubic
foot of moist sand as 89 pounds,* and the percentage of voids in
the stone as 46 per cent. In computations, values of absolute
volumes must be carried to three places of decimals.
Now let
P' = compressive strength in pounds per square inch.
cb — barrels of cement contained in acubic yard of the concrete.
sc = cubic feet of sand contained in a cubic yard of concrete.
gc = cubic feet of stone contained in a cubic yard of concrete.
M' = a coefficient adapted to pounds per square inch.
Then from formula (1)
376
P' = M'
Cb-
193
376 / 89 >v
1 H cb— 27| sc + 0.54 gc ■
193 V 165
P' = M' \
I °-5l3 + Cb— 7-48 {sc + gc)
This formula, as stated above, is only adapted for average
comparative determinations, or where the conditions exactly
correspond to those assumed. It may be adapted to other sand
and stone by altering the coefficients of sc and gc. Table II. is
based upon these formulas, (1) and (2), with coefficient of gc
changed to correspond to the voids in the stone.
Formula (1) is based upon the actual strength of concrete,
as determined by tests of Mr. E. Candlot in France and those
of several other authorities at the Watertown Arsenal, U. S. A.
To illustrate its agreement with actual experiments, tests of Mr.
Candlot upon broken stone and gravel concrete 28 days old are
plotted on the diagram, Fig. 6, and Mr. George A. Kimball's
tests made at the Watertown Arsenal on specimens six months
old in Fig. 7.
* With 3 per cent, natural moisture this is equivalent to 92 pounds
per cubic foot, a fair average weight for natural bank sand throughout
the United States.
I go
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
> 5000
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
■ABSGISSAS=(^C-W) ~°!)
Fig. 6. Comparison of Formula with Tests of E. Candlot.
The accuracy of the formula is shown by the nearness of
the points on each diagram to straight lines starting from the
origin. The abscissa of each point is determined by calculation
of the term in brackets in formula (i), and the ordinate is the
actual breaking strength of the specimen at the given period.
The value of M in each case is the tangent of the straight line
drawn through the points. If Mr. Candlot's tests are plotted on
cross-section paper and smooth curves of growth in strength
drawn through them, it will be found that the new values
taken from such curves, which partially eliminate inequalities
in the breaking, approach even more nearly to the straight
lines.
After a study of the strength of concrete at different periods,
the speaker would suggest the following values for M at different
ages. The values for broken stone concrete are based upon
stone ranging in size from 2 to 2 J inches down to \ to $ inch.
For broken stone of finer size the values will be slightly lower.
The composition of the concrete does not affect the value of M,
since the term of the formula in large brackets is itself dependent
upon the proportions of the mixture and the density of the
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
191
—
\. /
2
17
(0
m -t,Z
1
— - L -
£ ~7r
KE-C
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E 2 T
0 luuu " — ~>_r — —
? «
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:::::::::::3:::::::1
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ABSCISSAS = /j
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Fig. 7. Comparison of Formula with Tests of George A. Kimball.
concrete. The values of M are directly proportional to relative
strengths at different ages.
Value of Coefficiext M for Compressive Strength in Pounds
per Square Inch.
Age.
7 days . •
1 month .
3 months
6 months
1 year . . .
Coefficient M
for Broken
Stone Concrete.
Ratio of Growtl
Based on Age
at One Month.
9-500
O.76
12,500
I. OO
15,600
1-25
16,900
i-35
18,000
1.44
Table of Compressive Strength. — The strength of concrete
mixed in various proportions, given in Table II, is based upon a
strength with proportions 1 13 : 6, that is, one barrel cement
to 11. 4 cubic feet sand to 22.8 cubic feet stone, of 1,950 lbs. per
square inch at the age of one month; this value being selected
as the average of tests by different experimenters. It corre-
ig:
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
sponds to a value of M of 12,500. Using 1,950 lbs. per square
inch for 1 : 3 : 6 as the starting point, the strengths for other
mixtures are calculated from formula (1), the absolute units
for the different proportions being deduced from the average
quantities of cement, sand and stone contained in a unit volume
of concrete. The assumption, which corresponds to average
conditions, is made that a cubic foot of moist bank sand con-
tains 89 lbs. of dry grains having a specific gravity of 2.65, and
that the specific gravity of the cement is 3.1. The cement is
assumed to be first-class American Portland and the stone
equal in quality to sound, hard limestone.
TABLE II.
Average Strength of Concrete in Compression.
Age One Month.
Age Six Months.
Proportions.
45% Voids
in Stone or Gravel.
30% Voids
in Stone or Gravel.
45% Voids
in Stone or Gravel.
30% Voids
in Stone or Gravel
1 : r :3
1:2:4
1 : 2\ : 5
1:3:6
1:4:8
Lb. per sq. in.
2,630
2,440
2,l8o
I.950
I.570
Lb. per sq. in.
2,550
2.350
2,070
1,840
1,460
Lb. per sq. in.
3.560
3.300
2,940
2,630
2,120
Lb. per sq. in.
3.440
3.I70
2,790
2,480
1,970
The values in the table may be readily transformed to safe
working strength by dividing by the proper factor of safety.
If concrete of special kinds of material mixed in certain propor-
tions gives a higher or lower strength than that presented in
the table, mixtures of these same special materials in other pro-
portions may be assumed with approximate correctness to
produce relatively higher or lower strengths than the tabular
figures.
A point in the table which will appear inexplicable to users
of concrete who have not carefully studied the true causes of
strength in concrete is the fact that with the same proportions
of mixture, the stronger concrete results with the stone having
the larger percentage of voids. In explanation of this, it must
be remembered that a material with a small percentage of
voids contains in a unit volume, measured loose, a larger quan-
tity of actual solids than a material with a larger percentage
of voids. For example, stone with 30 per cent, voids has 70
per cent, of its bulk solid material, while one with 45 per cent.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. i93
voids has 55 per cent, of its bulk solid material. Now, each
particle of solid material occupies space in the volume of con-
crete, and a given volume of loose stone with 30 per cent, voids
will therefore make more concrete if the voids are filled with
mortar than the same loose volume of 45 per cent, stone rrrfxed
with the same volume of mortar. In the case of 1:3:6
concrete containing stone having 45 per cent, voids, one barrel
of cement will make 24.4 cubic feet of concrete, while with the
same proportions and stone having 30 per cent, voids, one barrel
of cement will produce 28.1 cubic feet of concrete. Conversely,
there will be less cement in a unit volume of concrete with the
stone having 30 per cent, voids. The density, on the other hand,
will be but slightly increased, because, the same quantity of
sand and cement being used, the particles of the stone con-
taining the smaller percentage of voids are forced apart by the
surplus mortar. The increase in density, in other words, is
not sufficient to counterbalance the decrease in percentage of
cement. If the proportions had been altered and the same
percentage of cement, but less sand, used with the stone having
30 per cent, voids, the density of the concrete would have been
greater than with the stone having 45 per cent, voids, and the
per cent, of cement remaining the same, the concrete contain-
ing the stone with 30 per cent, voids would have been stronger
than the other.
From this it must not be inferred that the aggregate with the
largest percentage of voids is best to use. As indicated above,
it requires more cement to a given volume of concrete, and the
concrete is apt to be slightly less dense than with an aggregate
having fewer voids, so that the latter is usually the more economi-
cal, even although it is sometimes slightly inferior in strength. In
the example in the preceding paragraph, with Portland cement
at $2.00 per barrel, the concrete with stone having 45 per cent,
voids would require 0.15 bbl. cement more per cubic yard than
the concrete with stone having 30 per cent, voids, and would
therefore cost 30 cents higher per cubic yard.
Tests of Compressive Strength of Concrete. — A series of
experiments upon 12-inch cubes made by Mr. George A. Kim-
ball,* and tested at the Watertown Arsenal, covers so wide a
range in time and proportions that more complete values are
worth quoting and are presented in the curves in Fig. 8. Mr.
Kimball's remarks with reference to the leanest mixtures are of
* Tests of Metals, U. S. A., 1899, p. 717.
194
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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Fig. 8. Tests on Concrete Cubes by Geo. A. Kimball (Watertown
Arsenal, 1899).
interest as illustrating the frequent necessity of using richer
proportions than the actual loading requires.
" The 1:6:12 blocks were in poor condition. This was due
to the difficulty of getting so lean a mixture well rammed into the
corners of molds so small as 12-inch, and to the fact that the
concrete had not attained sufficient strength, even though
handled with care, to hold together well in the process of re-
moval from the molds. The cubes of this mixture should
have had a longer time to set before taking them out of the
forms. In our foundation work we have used this mixture only
as a filling with which to replace soft ground and on which to
build the foundations proper."
The diagram in Fig. 8 shows Mr. Kimball's resultant
curves * for the different proportions based on an assumed
weight of cement of 100 lbs. per one cubic foot at the various
ages. The results from individual brands of cements are
shown by separate points.
* From data presented to the speaker by Mr. Kimball.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 195
Variation in Weight of Concrete of Different Proportions. —
The weights of specimens of similar concrete are of interest in
comparing the relative strength of different mixtures or of
different specimens of the same mixture. Of twelve pairs of
duplicate cubes which the speaker had tested in 1903 at the
Watertown Arsenal and the Massachusetts Instittite of Tech-
nology, the heavier specimen, except in one case, was found to
be the stronger.
The Effect of Concentrated Loading. — In concrete founda-
tions for piers and in concrete footings, it is customary to load
an area smaller than that of the surface of the concrete. The
question at once arises whether the stress shall be based upon
the load divided by the total area of the concrete footing or by
the area of contact. Experiments made upon concrete and
other materials show that neither of these methods is correct,
but that an intermediate area should be selected for compu-
tation.
In conection with the designing of concrete footings for
the Boston Elevated Railway, 12-inch cubes were crushed by
concentrating the load upon plates 10 by 10 inches and 8 by 8 J
inches.*
Curves by Mr. Kimball show the relative strength of con-
crete under concentrated loads to that under distributed load-
ing, and illustrate on the one hand the increased strength under
concentrated loading if figured on the compressed area, and on
the other hand the decreased strength if figured on the total
area. These curves are similar in general direction, and also
in the actual values of the ordinates, to curves drawn by Prof.
J. B. Johnson f illustrating Bauschinger's tests upon other
materials than concrete.
Concrete vs. Brick Columns. — The compressive strength
of brick piers is of interest to the concrete engineer for com-
paring brick and concrete columns. Tests made at the Water-
town Arsenal and quoted by the Committee of the American
Society of Civil Engineers on the Compressive Strength of
Cement, J give the ultimate strength of common brick piers
about eighteen months old as ranging from 800 to 2,400 pounds
per square inch, the results for brick laid with lime mortar
* Tests of Metals, U. S. A., 1899, p. 740.
t Johnson's Materials of Construction, 1903, p. 33.
t Transactions American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. XV.,
p. 717, and Vol. XVIII., p. 264.
i96 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
averaging nearer the lower figure, and those for i : 2 Portland
cement mortar nearer the higher figure.
Prof. William H. Burr,* after discussing the strength of
brick piers under various conditions, states that
" The results of all the experimental investigations available
in connection with brick masonry and experiences in the best
class .of engineering work indicate that masonry laid up of good
hard-burnt common brick may safely carry a working load of
15 to 20 tons per square foot , or 210 to 280 pounds per square inch.
In the construction of this class of masonry where the duties are to
be severe, it is of the utmost importance that the best class of
Portland cement mortar be employed, as the carrying capacity
of brick masonry depends largely, if not chiefly, upon the
character of the mortar."
These values nearly correspond to usual requirements for
columns of 1 : 2 J : 5 concrete.
The Strength of Concrete. — Using experimental crushing
tests as a basis, the safe working loads may be assumed to
range from J to yV of the breaking loads, depending upon the
various conditions which are outlined below. Although these
limits appear extreme, corresponding, for example, for 1 : 2\ : 5
concrete at the age of one month, to 730 to 220 pounds per square
inch, different conditions will often warrant as great a variation
in the selection of the unit pressure.
In many structures the actual strength of the concrete does
not enter into the calculation. The dimensions of a concrete
foundation, for example, are often determined by the area of
the superimposed structure, or else, on the other hand, by the
bearing power of the soil. In such cases it often would be theo-
retically possible to come nearer to the working strength of
the concrete by using very lean proportions, were it not pro-
hibited by the porosity of the mass or its low strength at short
periods. However, by grading the materials so as to reduce
the voids, a lean mixture is often economical.
The unit pressure to be selected depends not only upon the
strength of the concrete as determined by its proportions, the
character of the raw materials, and the methods of mixing, but
also upon the character and importance of the structure, the
nature of the pressure, — whether by direct compression or
bending, whether from a live or dead load, or whether acting
* Burr's Materials of Engineering, 1903, p. 42S.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
197
directly or through a cushion of inert material, — and the time
of setting before placing .the load.
The following arbitrary values are given as fairly repre-
senting modern practice.
Safe Compressive Strength of Concrete.
Safe Strength at 1 Month of
1 : 2% : 5 Mixture.*
Character of Pressure. Lbs. per sq. in. Tons per sq. ft.
Direct compression on mass concrete 400 29
Compressive stress in reinforced beams 625 45
Columns over 2 square feet in sectional area .... 350 25
Columns under 2 square feet in sectional area ... 300 22
Bearing of iron on concrete, such as bridge seats . 400 29
Cinder concrete in direct compression 150 11
Piers or mass concrete subjected to pounding or vibrating
load may require factors of safety nearly double the figures
given and thus much lower working values.
Growth in Strength of Concrete. — Records from various
tests made upon similar specimens of concrete at different peri-
ods are plotted in the diagram, Fig. 9. The curve illustrates the
growth in strength which may be expected in ordinary average
concrete made with first-class materials. The ordinates on
the diagram represent ratios of the strength at various periods
to the strength at the age of one month, in order that the curve
may be of general application to various mixtures. If, for
example, the strength of any concrete at one month is found
to be 2,000 lbs. per square inch, the strength of the same
concrete at the age of six months may be assumed to be 2,000
multiplied by i-35, the ordinate at six months, or 2,700 lbs.
per square inch.
The curve does not allow for the fact that the growth in
strength varies to a certain extent with different materials,
with different proportions, and with different percentages of
water employed in mixing. With age, the strength of gravel
concrete appears to gain on the strength of broken stone con-
crete. The growth, too, at periods beyond, say, three months,
is undoubtedly affected by the hardness or strength of the par-
ticles of the coarse aggregate, since a concrete of poor material
will reach its ultimate strength earlier than one of good material.
* Proportions based on a barrel of 3.8 cubic feet, average strength
of this mixture being assumed as about 3,000 lbs. per square inch at the
age of six months.
RATIO OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, TO STRENGTH AT ONE MONTH
to CO -P* en ct> —4 be to c=> — i-o to ".t- en en -J od
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Fig. 9. Growth in Compressive Strength of Portland Cement.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
199
Transverse Strength of Concrete. — The best set of tests
which have been made upon beams up to the present time
are those by Mr. William B. Fuller at Little Falls, N. J. Fig.
10 gives the results of this series of tests of 6 by 6 by 7 2 -inch
beams. Although different materials than those used by Mr.
Fuller will, of course, show slightly different strength, the
values are sufficiently representative of average conditions to
permit their use for comparisons of different proportions, and
with a proper factor of safety, as a working guide to the safe
transverse strength of concrete.
ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT. RIVER SILICA SAND.
GRADED SIZES OF TRAP ROCK 4 TO 3 INS.
CONCRETE MIXED VERY WET.
5 6 7
PARTS OF STONE, BY WEIGHT
Fig. io. Curves Showing Strength of Beams in Pounds per Square
Inch for Various Proportions, by Weight, of Sand and Stone
to One Part Portland Cement.
Effect of Varying Relative Proportions of Sand and Stone. —
A few values selected from Mr. Fuller's tests referred to in the
preceding paragraph illustrate the effect upon the strength of
concrete of substituting more stone for a portion of the sand.
The total amount of aggregate in each case is the same, namely,
i part cement to 6 parts sand and stone, but the strength
varies with the relative proportions of each, from 93 lbs. to
504 lbs.
Relation of Strength of Concrete to Relative Proportions of
Sand and Stone.
Proportions by Weight of
Cement to Total
Aggregate.
Proportions by Weight of
Cement to Sand and
Broken Stone.
Modulus of Rupture
lbs. per sq. in.
1:6
1:1:5
5°4
1:6
1:2:4
439
1:6
*'-3'-3
355
1:6
1:4:2
210
1:6
1:6:0
93
2oo ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete. — The modulus of elas-
ticity, that is, the stress or load at any point in the test divided
by the total strain or deformation of the specimen at the same
point is an important factor in the design of reinforced concrete.
The value of the modulus increases with the age of the specimen
and with the richness of the mixture. From experiments by
Prof. C. Bach of Stuttgart, Germany, in 1895, summarized by
Mr. David Molitor,* it appears that the modulus of elasticity
bears a definite relation, although not a fixed ratio, to the
ultimate strength.
Different experimenters have reached exceedingly varied
results in testing concrete for its modulus of elasticity. The
differences, even in concrete composed of the same proportions
of cement and aggregate, are often as great as from 1,500,000
to 5,000,000. The variation is due in part to the " personal
equation " and the extreme delicacy required in measuring
the deformation, and in part to differences in the quality of
materials and in the methods of making and testing the speci-
mens. Tests at the Watertown Arsenal given in the annual
volume of " Tests of Metals," present excellent records for
12-inch cubes, but as the gaged length for measuring the deform-
ation of 12-inch cubes can be no more than 5 inches, and since
the true measure of elasticity cannot be determined upon speci-
mens of this shape, these results may not be accepted as con-
clusive unless confirmed by tests upon long prisms. Experi-
ments by Prof. W. Kendrick.Hatt f give values ranging from
3,500,000 to 4,000,000 for 1:2:4 mixture, and the results of
Prof. W. H. Henby J upon specimens 2§- by 35 inches by 11
inches long, give similarly high values.
The speaker also has found a modulus of about 4,000,000 in
12-inch concrete cubes mixed 1:2$: 4§, the crushing strengths
of which were about 5,000 pounds per square inch at the end of
two months.
Recent tests upon long columns, the results of which have
not yet been published, indicate that lower values approxi-
mately equivalent to those obtained in Mr. Kimball's tests,
hold for concrete of a character employed for reinforced con-
struction.
* Journal Association of Engineering Societies, May, 1898, p. 348.
t Journal American Society for Testing Materials, 1902, and Engi-
neering News, February 27, 1902.
X Journal Association of Engineering Societies, September, 1902, p.
i45-
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 201
Effect of the Consistency upon the Strength. — The general
result of experiments and practice tends to show that the
strongest concrete can be secured with a mixture containing
only sufficient water to produce a film of mortar upon the sur-
face after very hard ramming in thin layers, but with a wetter
"quaking " mixture the ultimate strength will be nearly as
high as with the dry mixture, and because of the greater ease
in laying and obtaining a homogeneous mass, it is generally
to be preferred. An excess of water injures the cement by
decomposing parts of it before it has had opportunity to set.
The actual strength of concrete is often of less importance than
other considerations. If, as in many classes of structures,
there is an excess of strength, cheapness in placing, the appear-
ance of the surface, or the proper imbedding of reinforcing
metal may be of primary importance. In such cases the quan-
tity of water must be suited to the attendant conditions.
Tests by Mr. Taylor and the speaker indicate that (1) the
consistency which will produce the densest concrete will result
in the greatest ultimate strength, provided an excess of water
is not employed; (2) dry mixtures attain higher strength at
short periods, but mixtures of quaking consistency approach
the dryer specimens after longer setting; (3) very wet mix-
tures, especially of lean proportions, may be chemically injured,
but only to a slight extent, by the excess of water.
Effect of " Laitance." — Whenever concrete is laid under
water, the water is likely to be clouded by what appear to be
particles of cement floating up from the mass which is being
laid. This whitish substance is generally termed " laitance."
A similar formation occurs on the surface of concrete laid with
a large excess of water. In certain cases, we have found as
much as one-eighth inch rising from a layer of 1 : 2\ : 5 con-
crete less than five inches thick.
Chemical and microscopical analyses made by Mr. Clifford
Richardson show that this laitance has nearly the same chemi-
cal composition, except for a large loss on ignition, as normal
Portland cements, but consists largely of amorphous material
of an isotropic nature, — that is to say, it does not affect polar-
ized light, and has almost no setting properties. Mr. Richard-
son states that he has obtained a similar decomposed and
hydrated material by shaking a sample of Portland cement in
water, then decanting the finer portion and allowing this to
settle and harden. In practice, the finer particles of the cement
are suspended in the water and decompose before having
opportunity to set.
202 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
It is evident, therefore, that when concrete or mortar is laid
under water, or with a large excess of water, a portion of the
cement is rendered incapable of setting, and the strength of
the mass is consequently reduced in proportion to this loss.
The conclusion is naturally reached that for concrete laid under
water, or in locations where a large excess of water is required
in mixing, a higher percentage of cement than usual, about one-
sixth more, should be employed.
A lean mixture has been found to be more seriously in-
jured by an excess of water than a rich one, probably because
the water has a greater opportunity to penetrate the mass,
and therefore to dissolve the cement.
Gravel vs. Broken Stone Concrete. — Comparative tests
of broken stone and gravel concretes, in the same proportions
by volume, show almost invariably that concrete made from
hard broken stone, such as trap, or hard limestone, gives higher
compressive strength than concrete made from gravel. This
appears to be the rule not only when the materials are mixed
by measured volumes, regardless of the percentages of voids,
but also when the broken stone and gravel are each screened
to substantially the same sizes.
The relative values of gravel and broken stone concrete in
the following table are based on the comprehensive series of
comparative tests made by Mr. Candlot in France.
Each ratio gives the extra strength of broken stone over
gravel concrete of similar age. For example, if a concrete con-
taining gravel having 40 per cent, voids tests 2,000 lbs. per square
inch at the age of six months, a concrete in similar proportions
by volume containing broken stone with 47.4 per cent, voids
should, according to Candlot's experiments, test 1.20 times
greater, or 2,400 lbs. per square inch.
Comparative Strength of Broken Stone and Gravel Concrete.
From Candlot's Experiments.
Ratio of Strength of Broken Stone Concrete to Gravel Concrete.
Broken stone 47.4% voids.
Age. With equal voids. Gravel, 40% voids.
7 days 1.30 1.33
1 month 1.26 1. 19
6 months t.18 1.20
1 year 1.12 1.09
It is noticeable that the gravel concrete approaches the
broken stone concrete as its age increases. Since in many cases
the ultimate strength of concrete is determined by the strength
of its coarse aggregate, it follows that at, say, the age of a few
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 203
months, a gravel concrete may reach or surpass the strength of a
broken stone concrete having a coarse aggregate of soft stone
of low strength.
Although the claim is frequently made that gravel concrete
is stronger than broken stone concrete, the authors have failed
to find substantial proof of this. On the other hand, various
records, among them a number of tests at the Watertown
Arsenal,* tend to show the probable accuracy of Candlot's tests.
Another argument in favor of broken stone concrete lies
in the fact that gravel is often covered with a film of dirt, diffi-
cult to remove, which lowers the strength. In experiments for
the Boston subway t by Mr. Howard A. Carson, chief engineer,
concrete beams made with washed gravel were about one-third
stronger than beams made with gravel coated with a thin film
of dirt.
Although the weight of evidence apparently favors broken
stone concrete, it by no means follows that broken stone always
should be used to the exclusion of gravel. In many instances,
the ultimate strength of the concrete is of minor importance
because the proportions of the concrete are determined by other
considerations. Often, where strength is the criterion, but
gravel is cheaper than broken stone, an additional percentage
of cement may be economical. Moreover, the ultimate strength
of gravel concrete is undoubtedly greater than that of concrete
made with a poor quality of broken stone. With fixed propor-
tions, gravel is cheaper for the contractor than broken stone,
because a given loose volume makes a larger quantity of con-
crete.
In mixtures of like proportions by volume, the gravel
concrete will have less cement in a cubic yard of concrete than
a broken stone concrete unless the stone is well graded. Under
ordinary conditions, to attain concretes of nearly equal strength,
with gravel and with broken stone, the sand should be propor-
tioned in each according to the volume and dimensions of the
voids in the stone, t and the quantity of cement per unit volume
of compacted concrete should be the same in each. The gravel
* Tests of Metals, U. S. A., 1898, pp. 649 to 654.
f Boston Transit Commission, 7th Annual Report, 1901, p. 39.
t This can be better accomplished by trial mixtures, thoroughly
compacted, of the dry aggregate, or, still better, of small batches of con-
crete, than by water measurements of the voids. The proportions of
the aggregates giving the smallest bulk of concrete to a given weight of
the mixture of aggregates will be the best.
2o4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
concrete thus will be apt to be the denser, and this will tend to
overcome the slight difference in strength due to the varying
character of the surfaces of the particles of the gravel and
broken stone.
Sometimes it is advantageous to mix a small percentage of
gravel with broken stone.
Effect of the Size of Stone or Gravel upon the Strength of
Concrete. — The dimensions of the largest particles of stone
and gravel which may be used in a concrete are even often limited
by practical considerations of mixing and placing. For ordi-
nary work, it is often specified that the stone shall pass through
a 2-inch, or, more often, through a 22-inch ring. For ordinary
mass concrete of wet consistency the limit may be placed as
high as 3 inches. In some cases, however, the stone must be
small enough to pack readily around reinforcing metal, while in
walls whose surface is to be picked or washed, a better appear-
ance will result with stones under, say, one inch diameter,
although the strength of concrete appears generally to increase
with the size of the largest particles of stone in the mixture.
This is illustrated in experiments by Mr. Howard * at the
Watertown Arsenal upon 12-inch cubes of 1:1:3 concrete
made with uniform stone of different sizes. The weight of
the specimens indicate that rthe increase of strength is due
primarily to the density.
John Kyle f nearly doubled the strength of 1 : 2 : 6 con-
crete made with ij-inch stone by substituting 4 parts of 3 2 -inch
stone for a like portion of the ij-inch.
Effect of the Quality of the Stone upon the Strength of the
Concrete. — The ultimate strength of concrete is often limited
by the texture or strength of the coarse aggregate. This is
evidently the case with cinder concrete. Experiments by Mr.
George W. Rafter % gave the strength of concrete made with
hard broken sandstone and various proportions of mortar from
1.5 to 2.4 times the strength of similar mixtures of broken shale
and mortar, and this discovery led to the rejection of the latter
as a material for concrete.
Tests of the speaker upon 12-inch cubes broken at the
Watertown Arsenal lead him to believe that at least in certain
cases the ultimate strength of a concrete is actually fixed by
* Tests of Metals, U. S. A., 1898, p. 654.
t Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. LXXXVIL, p. 88.
t Second Report on the Genesee River Storage Project, New York.
1894.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 205
the shearing strength of the particles of stone which make up
the aggregate. Cubes in proportions 1 : 2 J : 4§, based on a
cement barrel of 3.8 cubic feet, attained an ultimate strength of
5,000 to 5,500 lbs. per square inch. On account of differences
in the methods of mixing and ramming, some of the specimens
reached this limit at the age of two months, while others did
not attain it for six months ; but it was noticeable that at what-
ever period the ultimate strength was reached, the planes of
fracture were smooth, breaking through each piece of stone,
whereas before the ultimate strength was reached many of the
stones pulled out from the concrete, leaving jagged instead of
smooth surfaces on the pyramids remaining after the cubes were
broken to destruction. The stone employed for these specimens
was a hard, dense trap. If. a weaker stone had been used, it is
probable that the piece would have sheared at a much earlier
period and the ultimate strength would have been lower.
If concrete is mixed in such proportions or by such methods
that the ultimate strength is reached before the stones shear,
the strength of the particles of stone is a much smaller factor in
the result.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. J. R. Worcester. ■ — ■ I have very little that I can say
in the line of the paper of the evening. I have enjoyed it very
much, and I am sure it is very useful and will be more useful
when it shall be published so that we can get at the tables and
data for use in designing. What I have had to do with concrete has
been more in the line of examining structures that are built
than in making specifications and determining exactly upon
the quality of materials to be used. In looking at concrete
that has been constructed, concrete beams and concrete slabs,
it is often the case that it is impossible to reconcile the actual
strength developed with the theoretical strength. I have found
this difficulty more particular!)* in slabs that are constructed
with deep reinforcement, such as the Columbian system, where
the reinforcing bar is almost as deep as the slab itself and the
center of gravity is in about the same position as the center
of the slab. The ordinary methods of computation seem to
give a very much lower strength for such a slab than has been
developed in practice. That brings up the question as to
whether such construction should be ruled out, because the
engineers are not bright enough to know how to calculate it.
The matter has come before me a number of times from the
building commissioner of Boston, where, as yet, we have no
206 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
law governing steel concrete, and contractors have often been
permitted to build floors on one system or another provided
they will stand suitable tests. When such floors have been
constructed and the building commissioner wants to test them,
the question arises as to how much more the floor ought to be
made to carry, where tested, in order to be sure of the portions
that are not tested. I wish, if others have had experience on
this point, they would give us the benefit of stating what they
have used as the proper factor. My practice has been to rule
that in buildings with the floors already constructed, if a few
of the bays on test carry, without any sign of a crack, loads 3
times the working loads, the whole ought to be considered safe.
In saying a load 3 times the working load, I mean three times the
total load including the weight of the slab. If the live load is 50 lbs.
persq. ft., and the dead load 75, it makes a great deal of difference
whether or not the dead load is taken into consideration.
As bearing upon the discrepancies between calculated and
theoretical strengths, it might be interesting for the Society
to hear of one or two tests that I have seen in Boston within the
last year. Unfortunately, most of them were not carried to
destruction ; it would be a great deal more satisfactory if they
were, but that is not often practicable in the case of buildings
already constructed. If a floor is proved strong enough for
its working load, the contractor does not want to destroy it for
the sake of science.
One test was at the Norman Street School, on a stone
concrete slab, having a span of about 11 ft.; the bay was 27 ft.
6 in. wide, and the whole bay was loaded. The slab was sup-
ported on steel beams riveted at the ends into the frame of
the building. That is an extremely important feature, whether
the slab tested is rigidly supported in this manner, or whether
it is tested by itself simply resting on supports. In this case
the slab was 6 in. thick, reinforced with Clinton wire mesh;
the mesh was 4 in. by 4 in., and the wires 0.15 in. in diameter;
the concrete was in the proportion of one, three and six; Alpha
cement, sand and crushed stone; 11 days old when tested;
the load was in the form of bags of cement piled along the
center of the bay; the extreme width of the load was about 4
ft., but in computations it was assumed to be distributed over
3 ft.; but that was not an important assumption, the span was
so long. In all, 370 bags of cement were used, or about 35,000
lbs. The first crack was observed on the lower surface with a
load equivalent to 192 lbs. per sq. ft. uniformly distributed, or
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 207
262 lbs., including the dead weight. Beyond this point there
was a marked increase in the rate of deflection. In this case,
using Professor Hatt's method of computation and assuming
the modulus of elasticity of concrete to be 4,000,000, as has
often been done, the compression of the concrete at the time
the cracks were observed was 2,650 lbs. per sq. in.; tension in
wire, 196,000 lbs. per sq. in. Of course this is absurd. The
explanation is that the concrete must have arched between the
supporting beams.
Another test was made in another bay of the same building
under the same conditions and it showed almost the same
results.
This was a case where the question was asked what sort of
reinforcement should be used. In the tests the load at the time
of cracking was not quite 3 times the total load specified, and
so the work was not approved in that form, and it was necessary
to increase the reinforcement to some extent. If the slab were
figured by modern methods, I think probably 6 or 8 times as
much steel as was used would be required. The bays of the
building were the same size throughout, so there appeared to
be no reason why the result of the tests should not govern the
construction. Considering that each of these nearly reached
the desired strength, it was settled finally to double the rein-
forcement.
Another bay in that same schoolhouse was tested later,
but not intentionally. In this case a bay very similar to the
one first described, but with twice the reinforcement, was built
in extremely cold weather and frozen when first laid. A week
later the forms were removed from under it, and the contractor
took occasion to pile all the broken stone to be used in that floor
upon that bay. With the forms removed and the concrete
frozen, on Sunday, about ten days after the concrete was put
in, there came a heavy warm rain, and that night or early
Monday morning the slab went down, and through the floors
below it to the ground. As nearly as could be determined from
the statements of the men, there was a load of about 400 lbs.
per sq. ft. on the concrete. The concrete was less than two
weeks old at the time. It was so frozen that the next day in
looking at the fragments they were glistening with the frost.
As soon as it thawed out it was almost as soft as when put in.
Another interesting test was witnessed at the Harvard
Medical School on Longwood Avenue. There a 10 ft. 2 in.
span, 4 in. thick, of stone concrete, laid between beams riveted
2o8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
to a header at one end and built into a wall at the other, was
reinforced in two different ways and tested with a uniformly
distributed load over each portion. The reinforcement in one
part consisted of Clinton welded wire mesh, the wires about
9-64 in. in diameter, spaced 3 in. apart. In another part the
reinforcement was \ in. twisted square rods, 7 \ in. apart on
centers. The concrete was 1, 3 and 5; Penn-Allyn cement, sand
and stone, 1 in. and \ in. mixed; age, 27 days. The load was
in the form of brick piled on edge, the long dimension being
parallel to the beam, the bricks being laid so as not to bear on
each other. The bricks were applied one layer at a time until
the load reached a total of about 445 lbs. per sq. ft., including
the dead load. At that time the test was stopped, as it was
over the required three times the working load. The increase
in deflection on this 10 ft. span between a load of 200 and 445
was 3-16 of an inch. This slab was 20 feet wide, one-half rein-
forced with mesh and half with twisted rods. Both portions
acted the same, so far as deflection was concerned. No cracks
could be discovered. Using the Hatt method of computation
we find the unit stress on the Clinton mesh was 250,000 lbs.
per sq. in.; the compression on the concrete about 4,500 lbs.
per sq. in. ; and in the other half, reinforced with the twisted rods,
there was a compression in the concrete of 2,170 lbs. per sq. in.;
tension in steel 22,500. It is evident the slab must have arched
between the beams, in one half, at any rate.
Another bay at the Harvard Medical School was tested
later. That had one-half reinforced with Clinton wire mesh and
the other half with rods, § in. square, 12 in. on centers. Lehigh
cement was used. The only difference from the first test in
the results noticeable was that with a load of 277 lbs. per sq.
ft. there was a slight crack in the half reinforced with Clinton
mesh, and on this part the load was not carried any farther.
On the other half the load went to 445 without any sign of a
crack and with only very slight deflection.
I have also notes of two tests made at the Boston Storage
Warehouse on St. Stephen Street. The first was a test of a
reinforced concrete beam of T section. The beam was one of
a series spaced 6 ft. 2% in. on centers and having a span of about
14 ft., 8J clear, the ends butting into 20-in. I-beams and really
resting on the haunches built up from the bottom flange. The
I-beams were 15 ft. 7? in. on centers. The slab between the con-
crete beams was 4 in. thick, reinforced with expanded metal near
the bottom of the slab at the center, and raised almost the depth
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 209
of the slab over the concrete beams. The reinforcing of the
beam consisted of four | -in. round rods near the bottom through
the central portion. Two of these rods extended the whole
length of the beam, and were bent at right angles near the web
of a steel girder where they terminated. The other two were
bent upwards at an angle of 450 near the quarter points of the
span, whence they were carried horizontally over the tops of
the steel girders, and anchored into the top of the concrete beam
in the adjoining bays. Vertical stirrups were used near the
ends of 7-16-in. round iron. The size of the beam was 8^ in.
wide by 15 in. deep below the bottom of the slab, and the slab
was connected to the beam by a small fillet. The concrete was
made 1:3:5, except in the lower portion of each beam, where
the proximity of the rods made it impossible to get in stones,
and there the proportions were 1:1:23, the stone being in
the form of crusher dust. The cement was Lehigh, of good
quality, except as to fineness, which showed a residue from
24 to 27 per cent, on 200-mesh sieve. The stone was Roxbury
pudding stone, three-fourths of it about 1 in. in diameter, and
two-fifths about \ in. The sand was clean, coarse and sharp.
A wet mixture was used throughout, the mixing being done by
the Smith mixing machine, and not being as uniform as might
be desired; age, 40 days. The load was applied in the form
of pig iron, which was laid in piles kept separate from each other,
the pigs being laid with the beams. These were placed over
a width of 6 ft. 2f in., the center of the load over the center of
the beam. Careful observations of the deflection showed it
to be almost exactly proportional to the loads. The total
amount reached was 7-128 in., with a total load of 668 lbs. per
sq. ft.
In calculating the bending moment there is a good deal of
uncertainty as to how much assistance was given by the con-
tinuity of the beams over the steel girders and the slabs extend-
ing to other concrete beams. Assuming that the load was all
carried by the beam in question, and that the center moment
was Wl2 divided by 10, and that the effective depth of the beam
was 15 in., the strain in the rods amounted to 45,000 lbs. per sq.
in. The exact strain in the concrete is not easily determinable.
Another test was made in the same building under similar
conditions to the first one, except that the beams were stronger,
being 9 in. in width by 45 in. deep, and the slab was 4? in. deep
instead of 4 in. In this case the load amounted to 737 lbs.
per sq. ft. live load, or 812 lbs. total, causing a deflection of a
2io ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
scant 1-16 in. In each case the load was left on for a number
of days without any change.
Making the same assumption as in the case of No. 1, the
strain in the steel amounted to 41,400 lbs. per sq. in.
Another test that I have noted is in cinder concrete. In
this case it was in a schoolhouse at City Point, the floors of
which were constructed by the Roebling Construction Com-
pany. I had the privilege of seeing the test, and it was ex-
tremely interesting. The results were high. A slab with a
span of 10 ft in the clear, 5 in. thick, was reinforced with 2-in.
by TF-m- bars placed vertically, 12 in. on centers. The con-
crete was 1, 2 \ and 6, Lehigh cement, sand and steam ashes,
except a thin surfacing, which was made of 1, 2 and 4 screenings;
age, 38 days. The load was applied in the form of sand in a
wooden box. In this case it was a test slab not enclosed by a
frame. The load was carried to a total of 340 lbs. per sq. ft.,
with an extreme deflection of three-eighths of an inch, which,
after carrying the load for three days, recovered within 3-64 in.
Applying the methods of computation that I have before em-
ployed to the test, and assuming a modulus of elasticity of
cinder concrete of 750,000, the fiber strain in concrete was 980
lbs. per sq. in., while the strain in the steel was 41,400 lbs. per
sq. in. Nine hundred and eighty seems very high for cinder
concrete. Mr. Thompson recommends 150. This is 6 or 7 times
as much without any sign of failure.
Another cinder concrete test I saw was a slab constructed
by the Eastern Expanded Metal Company for the Bussey
Institute. In this case a slab 3 ft. wide, 8 ft. between sup-
ports, reinforced with 3-in. No. 10 gage expanded metal,
was tested to destruction. Two sheets of reinforcing metal
were used, overlapping each other 4 ft. at the center. This
arrangement of reinforcing made the weak spot under a uniform
load at the end of the double sheet of metal, and it was at this
point that the first fracture occurred. The ends of the metal
sheets were turned up towards the top of the slab. The sup-
ports were not connected together outside of the slab. The
concrete in this case was 1 : 2 \ : 5, and was 33 days old. The
load was applied in the form of brick, arranged so as not to
arch. As the load increased, the rate of deflection gradually
increased also, being 1-64 in. for each tier of brick at the start,
and 1-16 in. for each tier near the end. Failure occurred when
the load reached 325 lbs. per sq. ft., and the deflection was
about I -in. As before stated, the first crack occurred at the
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 211
end of one of the sheets of expanded metal 2 ft. from the center,
and ran horizontally along the metal and upwards toward the
center. According to my calculations at the time of failure
there was a compression in the concrete of 8S0 lbs. per sq. in.,
and a strain on the steel of 62,000 lbs. per sq. in. It was evident
that the failure started from the steel being overstrained.
Another test which I will speak of was interesting only from
the effect of frost on cinder concrete. The roof of the Beacon
Hill building was laid about the 1st of January in extremely
cold weather. It was said by the workmen that the night
following the laying of most of the concrete, the thermometer
went to zero and stayed there for a week. At any rate, when I
first saw the concrete, which was in March, it was so soft you
could kick into it with the heel of your boot. It was just
beginning to set. If you took a light hammer you could easily
dig right through it. The concrete was poorly applied ; it was
reinforced with expanded metal which showed through on the
bottom in a considerable part of the roof; it was not buried
in the concrete. It seemed that it could not make a good job,
and together with one or two others, I was misled into recom-
mending to have it torn out. The contractor insisted that it
should have more time, and it was allowed. In the interval,
the contractor plastered the under side with cement, and a week
or two of warm weather dried the upper surface. The setting
which had been so long delayed took place as it naturally would
if it had never been frozen, and by April 6, when tests were made,
it was in such condition that in each of the four bays tested, a
load equivalent to 244 lbs. per sq. ft. was supported with a
deflection on a 5 ft. 6 in. span of not over | in.
Mr. H. A. Carson. — I would like to ask Mr. Thompson
whether he made any observations upon the shrinkage of con-
crete, that is, for example, the length of a beam, not due to
changes of temperature, but to crystallization of the concrete
itself.
Mr. Thompson. — I have never made any experiments of
that kind. I think I spoke of wet concrete shrinking. This
merely referred to the setting of the heavy materials and forcing
the excess water to the surface.
Mr. R. A. Hale. — I should like to ask Mr. Worcester if
his slabs were flat straight across, or arched in any way.
Mr. Worcester. — In every case they were straight slabs,
not arched.
Prof. C. M. Spofford. — I wish to point out the large
Fig.
212 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
shearing values given in Table I. I remember that, at the time
this Society had under consideration the proper units to recom-
mend for insertion in the proposed revision of the Boston Build-
ing Laws, we selected 30 lbs. per sq. in. for the allowable shearing
value of concrete. The breaking values in the table vary from
1,000 to 2,000 and 3,000 lbs. per sq. in. Do you know how
these values were obtained?
Mr. Thompson. — I do not think they were very scientifi-
cally obtained, not so much so as most of Mr. Feret's work.
The form of specimen was an overhanging
beam, 2 cm. (0.8 in.) square by t\ cm. (2.6 in.)
long, firmly held between two supports, one
below and one above, and loaded as close as
HJ possible to the supports so as to avoid bending
it, as shown in Fig. 11. Later, Mr. Feret made
some tests which are mentioned in his book,
" Chimie Appliqu^e," in which he made a cube
Shearing Test, of neat cement with a layer of the mortar to be
tested running through it in a diagonal plane,
so that it would shear on this mortar plane.
Prof. Spofford. — The results from these were very
similar, were they not?
Mr. Thompson. — Yes.
Prof. Spofford. — We made a few tests at the Institute
this year upon the shearing value of concrete. The specimens
were cylinders 5 in. in diameter, and 15 \ in. long, with their
ends supported in cast-iron blocks which fitted the cylinders
exactly. The load was applied to the cylinders over the central
span of 5 in. through a semi-cylindrical cast-iron block which
fitted the concrete cylinders so exactly, and was such a tight fit
between the supports, that there was very little chance for
bending. Our values were high as compared with the breaking
load which would correspond to a working load of 30 lbs. per
sq. in., although they were not as high as those given in Table I.
Unfortunately, I have been unable to look up all the data of
these tests in time for this meeting but I will read a brief
summary of the results. In order to prevent misunderstand-
ing it should be noted that all the values which are given
were computed on the assumption that the cylinders sheared
simultaneously on two sections, and that the shearing stress
was distributed uniformly over the cross section of the
cylinder.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
213
Mixture.
Neat cement . . .
1 : 2 mortar . . .
1:3
1:2:4 concrete
1:3:5
1:3:6
No. of
Tests.
5
5
5
8
10
9
Time of
Set.
Days.
35 to 63
27 to 32
26 to 29
25 to 30
2 1 to 26
25 to 29
Average
Time of Set.
Days.
53
292-
28
27
23I
27
Average Shearing
Strength.
Lbs. per sq. in.
2-753
1,318
839
1,082
560
612
I hope at a later date to bring these tests more fully before
the Society, but I think that so far as they go they would tend
to show that a working unit of 30 lbs. per sq. in. is, to say the
least, a very conservative value.
Mr. Thompson. — A paper on " Strength of Concrete " is
incomplete without more definite reference to reinforced con-
crete beams. The speaker has referred to the variations in the
position of the neutral axis under different conditions, and a
comparison which he has made between theoretical calculations
and the actual measured locations found in the experiments by
Prof. Arthur N. Talbot at the University of Illinois may be of
interest. These experiments as well as those of Professor Tur-
neaure and Professor Marburg, were presented to the American
Society for Testing Materials at the 1904 session.
The aim of such important series of tests of reinforced con-
crete beams is toward the establishment of laws and the con-
firmation of theories which will enable us to design beams of
reinforced concrete with minimum quantities of steel and of
cement and yet with positive assurance of safety.
The most important point which has been clearly, and it
would seem positively, established by these tests, is the fact
that the pull in the tension portion of the beam is actually
transferred to the steel at an early period in the test, usually
before the working strength of the beam is reached. This is
indicated not only by Professor Turneaure's observation of the
water-marks, but as well by the marked change in character of
the curves in the various diagrams, when the load is transferred
to the steel. The practice, which has already been generally
adopted, of neglecting all strength of the concrete in pull, may
therefore be considered correct, not only from the point of view
of safety, but also from a rational standpoint.
Another conclusion — an extremely important one in the
opinion of the speaker — that may be drawn from the tests,
especially from those of Professor Talbot which embrace the
2i4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
widest range in reinforcement, is that computations made
according to the usual beam theories (based on the elasticity and
the stresses in the concrete and the steel) produce values for the
location of the neutral axis, and also for the ultimate moment
of resistance, which are so near the experimental results that
the theoretical formulas may be safely employed, if proper unit
stresses and moduli are used.
The proof of the lack of tensile resistance in the concrete
under normal loading enables us to consider the resistance of the
beam as a couple, whose forces are the pressure in the concrete
and the pull in the steel, and whose arm is the distance between
these forces. Therefore, the moment of resistance may be
obtained by taking moments about both forces, and adopting the
lower value.
The location of the center of pull in the steel is evidently at
the center of gravity of the steel rod or rods. The location of
the center of pressure in the concrete has not yet been clearly
fixed because the various experiments in this country and abroad
have been made with concretes of various and, in many cases,
undefined, proportions and consequently of different strength
and elasticity. The location of the center of pressure of the
concrete is based on the location of the neutral axis in the beam
and the distribution of the pressure above the neutral axis,
which, in turn, if the fundamental principles of theory are
correct, depend upon the moduli of elasticity of the steel and
the concrete.
In the table which follows are presented for comparison the
actual location of the neutral axis as determined by Professor
Talbot's experiments, column (7) ; the values calculated by his
empirical formula, column (8) ; the values calculated by the
theory of the straight line distribution of pressure, column (9),
and by the theory of the parabola distribution of pressure,
column (10) ; also Professor Talbot's estimated bending moment
in column (11), and the moment of resistance calculated by the
straight line and by the parabola theories in columns (12) and
(i3)-
The measured depths of the neutral axis, column (7), are
taken directly from Professor Talbot's tabulation of the actual
positions during the third stage of each beam, as given in his
paper in the University of Illinois Bulletin, September, 1904.
The close agreement of the values by Professor Talbot's
formula, column (8), with the measured values, indicates the
possibility of determining for such a formula, constants, each of
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE.
215
Comparison of Professor Talbot's Results with Theoretical Computations.
S
re
Ratio of Depth
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V
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of Steel to Depth of
•3 e
Si
N
eutral Axis
*
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(2)
(3)
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(5)
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lb.
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
in.-lb.
(12)
in.-lb.
(13)
in.-lb.
21
Round
3
*
0.0041
8,000
0.34
0.33
°-33
0.29
261,000
226,890b
226,85ob
19
Round
3
i
0.0041
9,200
0.36
o.33
Q-33
0.29
294,600
226,890b
226,85ob
16
Square
3
i
0.0052
9,900
o.37
°.35
0.36
0.32
313,200
284,7oob
284,55ob
17
Square
3
*
0.0052
9.5°°
o.37
o.35
0.36
0.32
302,000
284,7oob
284,55ob
27
Square
4
i
0.0156
25,000
°-53
°.54
°-54
0.49
725,500
774,oooa
793,200b
9
Ransome
3
*
0.0052
18,000
°-34
°.35
0.36
0.32
540,000
474,500°
474,200°
IS
Thacher
3
i
0.0083
I5.S°°
0.41
0.41
°-43
°-39
466,000
443,300b
442,300b
10
Thacher
3
i
0.0083
14. 5°°
o.43
0.41
o.43
°.39
438,000
443.3°°b
442,30ob
22
Kahn
3
i
0.0167
22,000
°.57
0.56
°-55
0.5°
641,000
786,200s
843,ooob
4
Kahn
S
i
0.0139
21,000
0.47
o.5i
0.52
0.47
615,000
7i4,8oob
7ii,8oob
14
Kahn
4
i
O.OIII
17,000
0.46
0.46
0.48
o.43
505,500
58o,40ob
578,6oob
S
Kahn
3
i
0.0083
13,000
0.42
0.41
°-43
°.39
396,000
443,200b
442,300b
28
Johnson
6
i
0.0152
31,000
Q.53
o.53
°.53
0.48
893.5°°
768,700*
927,800*
13
Johnson
7
*
0.0097
27,500
°-45
°.43
0.46
0.41
800,500
681,400s
817,700s
20
Johnson
S
i
0.0069
20,000
0.44
°.39
0.41
0.36
593,5°°
6is,6ooa
62I,200b
2
Johnson
5
i
0.0069
19,000
o.39
o.39
0.41
0.36
565.500
615,600s
62I,200b
7
Johnson
3
i
0.0042
13,000
°.33
°.33
°.33
0.30
401,000
384,400c
384,200°
3
Johnson
3
I
0.0042
12,000
Av'ge
°-3i
0.33
°-33
0.30
373,000
384,400°
384,200°
0.418
0.411
0.422
°.378
506,906
507.388
533.711
Note. — Columns (1), (2), (3), (4), (6), (11) are taken from Professor Talbot's ta-
ble. Just within the load points of the beams the area of steel in the Kahn bars was
smaller than tabulated in column (5), and therefore the loads and moments of the Kahn
beams cannot be directly compared with the other beams.
* As calculated by Professor Talbot, based on " Load Considered," column (6).
s Based on crushing strength of concrete 2,030 lbs. per sq. in., because the moment
thus obtained is lower than the moment based on yield point of steel.
b Based on yield point of mild steel as 36,000 lbs. per sq. in.
° Based on yield point of high steel as 60,000 lbs. per sq. in.
which will apply to a certain class of concrete. The exact
values of the constants are of course dependent upon the strength
and elasticity of the concrete, and therefore the values given in
the original formula cannot be applied directly to concrete of a
different character.
The theoretical calculation for the location of the neutral
axis is much simplified by the elimination of tensile resistance in
the concrete, and if the general principles of most of the theories
are correct, the location of the neutral axis after the pull has been
transferred to the steel must lie either in the position calculated
by the straight line distribution of pressure, — which assumes
that a plane section before bending is also plane after bending
and that the modulus of elasticity is constant during working
2i6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
limits, — or by the parabola theory, — which assumes a clearly
defined decrease in the modulus, — or else between these two
positions. The values in columns (9) and (10) therefore present
extremes with the modulus of elasticity selected.
In calculating columns (8), (9), (10) and (13) of the table,
the modulus of elasticity of concrete is taken at 1,500,000.
Professor Talbot's tests * of elasticity show this to be a fair
average value for the concrete which he used, between pressures
of 1,000 and 1,700 lbs. per sq. in., stresses which correspond to
the pressure in the beam when the neutral axis is as measured.
This modulus also gives, by the straight line theory, proportional
values for the location of the neutral axis which are nearest to
the measured locations. By the parabola theory a still lower
modulus would have shown better results.
In calculating the values for the moments of resistance, the
yield points of the steel are taken at average values for high and
low steel respectively, so as to compare the tests with results
which would be reached by theoretical calculations. Similarly,
the ultimate crushing strength of the concrete is assumed as
2,030 lbs. per sq. in., which is the average strength found by
Professor Talbot in his tests upon 6-in. cubes.
It is noticeable that the neutral axis calculated by the
straight line theory of pressure distribution, column (9), agrees
almost exactly with the measured values in column (7). The
ratios by the parabola theory are lower, that is, the location of
the neutral axis in the beam is higher. It is also interesting to
observe that the values in columns (9) and (10) are nearly but
not quite proportional to each other.
The moments of resistance in column (12) agree as nearly as
could be expected with the estimated bending moments in
column (11). The moments calculated by the two theories,
columns (12) and (13), agree almost exactly in the tests based
on the pull in the steel. In tests (28) and (13), in which both
columns are based upon an ultimate strength of concrete of
2,030 lbs. per sq. in., the parabola values are nearer to the
actual bending moments than the straight line values, showing
that for the latter a crushing strength of concrete higher
than 2,030 ought to have been assumed. On the other hand,
tests (27), (22), (20) and (2), which by the parabola theory
have to be calculated from pull in the steel, because this gives
the lower moment of resistance, are not in column (12) quite
so near to the estimated bending moments as by the straight
* Journal Western Society of Engineers, August, 1904.
THE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE. 217
line theory which assumes the concrete to be the limiting
material.
As I have already said, the important part which the quality
of the concrete plays in reinforced beams has sometimes been
overlooked in theoretical studies of the combination of concrete
and steel. This is well illustrated by the fact that Professor
Talbot's beams, as stated above, require calculation with the
use of a modulus of elasticity of not more than 1,500,000, cor-
responding to a ratio of 20, in order to bring the neutral axis as
low in the beam as his measured depths. To obtain theoretical
results with Professor Hatt's beams * agreeing with actual
tests, one must employ, as Professor Hatt suggests, a modulus
of about 4,000,000, corresponding to a ratio of 7.5. For Pro-
fessor Turneaure's tests, I find a modulus of 2,500,000, or a
ratio of 12, to give locations of the neutral axis which fairly
agree with his experiments. The reason for such variation
presents an important field for experimental investigation.
The formulas f used in calculating the location of the neutral
axis columns (9) and (10), and the moments of resistance,
columns (12) and (13), are as follows:
Let
p = ratio of area of steel to area of beam above the center of
gravity of the steel.
C = unit pressure in outside fiber of concrete.
5 = unit pull in steel.
E
r = -=? = modulus of elasticity of steel divided by modulus of
elasticity of concrete in compression.
d = distance from outside compressive surface to center of
gravity of steel.
xd = distance from outside compressive surface to neutral axis
in a beam having steel at depth, d, below the outside com-
pressive surface.
x = ratio of depth of neutral axis to depth of steel, from out-
side compressive surface.
Mr = moment of resistance.
By the straight line theory, the proportional depth of the
neutral axis is
rp(\i + 1)
V rp / (1)
* Proceedings American Society for Testing Materials, 1902.
t The derivation of these formulas is presented in Taylor and Thomp-
son's treatise on " Concrete, Plain and Reinforced," 1905.
2iS ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES,
and the formula for the moment of resistance is
Mr = pSbdti i— — 1
V 3 / (2)
or
Cxbd2
—( - t)
3^ (3)
Similarly, by the parabola theory, the proportional depth of
the neutral axis is
V xrp 7
x= — rp\
4 V " 3rp / (4)
and the formula for the moment is
( --)
Mr = Spbd2( 1--— §
V 8/ (6)
Mr = — Cxbd2l_
3
or
OBITUARY. 219
OBITUARY.
William Ellery Channing Cox.
Member of the Toledo Society of Engineers.
Mr. Cox was born in Philadelphia, Pa., June 12, 1837. In
this city he was educated, and at the age of twenty -one com-
menced an active life in positions of trust and confidence as
assistant superintendent of the Fairmont Rolling Mill Company.
In this position, which he held until 1862, his ability and in-
tegrity were recognized by men of affairs to such an extent
that his services were eagerly sought for places of authority in
iron, railroad and mining enterprises; and he subsequently held,
with honor to himself and credit to his associates, the positions
of superintendent, general manager, trustee and vice-president
of the several companies with which he was identified. In 1904
he moved to Toledo and became the representative of the Cam-
bria Steel Company and Pennsylvania Railroad Coal. In the
summer of 1904, his health began to fail, and during the fall he
continued to grow weaker and was unable to give much atten-
tion to his business affairs. He was called from this life Decem-
ber 17, 1904, and is survived by a family of four sons and two
daughters, his wife having died in 1901. Mr. Cox was one of
the early members of the Toledo Society of Engineers and felt
a deep interest in its success, but was prevented by his health
from taking a very active part in its work. He was genial and
affable, and made many warm friends in every circle in which he
moved. His thorough knowledge of the steel and iron business,
his position here as the representative of the Cambria Steel
Company, brought him into contact with large interests and
many business men, all of whom learned to admire him for his
manly qualities, and respect him for his abilities.
Mr. Cox was a thorough Christian gentleman, and was ac-
tively connected with the Church of Our Father in this city.
The Toledo Society of Engineers feel that they have lost a mem-
ber who was an honor to them, and one who would have greatly
advanced the prosperity of the Society had he been longer
spared to them. • To his bereaved family the members of the
Toledo Society of Engineers hereby extend their heartfelt
sympathv.
H. E. Riggs.
F. T. Oakley.
C. S. Davis.
220 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Burr Bassell.
Member Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.
[Born in West Virginia, September 25, 1858. Died in Los Angeles,
February 25, 1905. Aged forty-seven.]
Mr. Bassell received his education in the University of
West Virginia and in Washington and Jefferson College, Wash-
ington, Pa., which he attended for five years, graduating with the
degree of A.B. in 1881. He took an additional course of three
years' study in the Le Moyne School of Applied Mathematics,
and, in 1883, attended law
lectures at the University of
Virginia. Having passed the
examinations required, he was
admitted to the bar in De-
cember, 1883, but never in-
tended to practice law. In
the spring of 1884, he re-
moved to California, and be-
gan the practice of his chosen
profession in Los Angeles,
with the county surveyor and
city engineer. The field of
his subsequent labors con-
tinued to be on the Pacific
coast, up to the time of his
death. During the earlier
years of his life here, South-
ern California had not entered
upon that period of active
development which subsequently attracted the attention of the
world so strongly, and the career of a young engineer was one of
struggle and discouragement. During all this period, however,
Mr. Bassell maintained unfaltering courage and wore the same
breezy, energetic, confident air of one who was sure of himself
and his future, and determined to win recognition. He was not
only cheerful himself, but inspired many other young men of
his acquaintance to persevere, study and make the most of
what were, oftentimes, pitifully meager opportunities for ad-
vancement. He was a constant student, and remarkably sys-
tematic in preserving, arranging and indexing the great mass
of information which he was ever collecting to add to his
library. His industry was tireless, and he was always equip-
OBITUARY. 221
ping himself for the greater achievements of the bright future
he could see before him.
While his practice was quite general and covered a wide
range, from land surveying to railway construction, sewerage
and irrigation, he made a specialty of hydraulics, and was most
interested in that branch of engineering. His most prominent
work was the design and construction of the Tabeaud dam for
the Standard Electric Company, near Jackson, Amador County.
This dam is one of the highest and largest earth dams in the world,
and has proven a most successful work in every respect. As a
result of this experience, he wrote a textbook entitled " Earth
Dams," published in 1904 by the Engineering News Publishing
Company. In 1890-91, he was office engineer for the Arrow-
head Reservoir Company, San Bernardino, Cal., designing and
preparing drawings for canals, tunnels, trestles, flumes and
earthwork diagrams. He was appointed United States deputy
mineral surveyor for the district of California, in 1891. In
1892 to 1896, was assistant city engineer under J. H. Dock-
weiler, designing structures for the city irrigation and storm-
water systems, superintending sewer construction of brick, con-
crete, vitrified clay, cast-iron and wood-stave pipe, paving and
sidewalks, tests of cement, brick, asphalt and pile foundations.
In 1899, Mr. Bassell was assistant engineer to a board of experts
engaged in designing a new system of sewerage for the city of
San Francisco. Subsequently he was engaged as locating engi-
neer for the Gila Valley, Globe & Northern Railway. During
the two or three years preceding his death, he was engaged as
resident engineer in charge of construction of the plant of the
Kern River Company for power development on Kern River,
near the town of Kernville, a plant costing over $2,000,000 and
successfully delivering power to Los Angeles, 130 miles distant.
A few weeks prior to his untimely end he had been selected
by Mr. James D. Schuyler to the position of chief engineer of an
important irrigation project in Texas, involving construction of
a very large dam, and a reservoir covering some 10,000 acres,
and was to have started the very week of his fatal illness. Mr.
Bassell was a consistent Christian who was never ashamed to
make profession of the faith, and manifested the same vigor and
energy in the Baptist Church as characterized his professional
work.
The malady with which he was stricken was pronounced
spinal meningitis, and came upon him with such suddenness that
he died the very day after his last work in the office. Funeral
222 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
services were held in Los Angeles, but the remains were taken to
Clarksburg, W. Va. (where his mother and immediate relatives
reside), accompanied by his stricken wife and daughter, Louise,
a child of twelve years, but old enough, however, to appreciate
the loss of the fond father, whose hopes had been so deeply
centered upon her as his only child.
Mr. Bassell has set an example of industry, systematic
order, neatness, intelligent inquiry, pursuit of knowledge, " up-
to-date " and practical Christianity which could be followed to
advantage by all who came within his sphere of influence.
Jas. D. Schuyler,
Otto von Geldern,
Committee.
Charles Mason Wilkes.
Member of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
[Read before the Society, April 19, 1905.]
He was born May 29, 1858, in South Manchester, Conn.,
was reared there and attended its public schools.
In September, 1877, he entered the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology; was the first president of his class, and was
graduated in the architectural course in 1 88 1 . During the school
year, 1881-82, he was assistant in applied mechanics. He
was able, earnest and faithful in all that he did, both as student
and as assistant. His interest centered on the constructive or
engineering side of architecture rather than on that of design.
In accordance with this tendency, he took up the work of
assistant in applied mechanics at the time when the depart-
ment had acquired its first testing machine, and begun the ex-
perimental investigation of the strength of materials by tests
of full-size timber beams. In connection with this work, in-
cluding the devising of suitable apparatus, he showed great
energy and enthusiasm.
For most of the time from July, 1882, to November, 1885,
he was an assistant engineer for the city of Boston for work on
the Back Bay in connection with Stony Brook and Muddy River,
and here also he showed energy and enthusiasm as well as
intelligent appreciation of the work to be done.
From February to June, 1886, he was employed as assist-
ant on tests at Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass.
OBITUARY
22 3
He went subsequently to St. Paul, Minn., where he was engaged
in important public sanitary matters.
During the year 1891, he was the resident engineer for
the contractor for the construction of a sewerage system for the
business portion of Winona, Minn., and had sole charge of the
work. In spite of the many difficulties connected with this
piece of construction he car-
ried it out to the credit and
satisfaction of all concerned.
From Winona he was
called, in the winter of 1891-
92, to take the position of
first assistant engineer in the
division of Water Supply,
Sewerage and Fire Protection
of the World's Columbian
Exposition. He occupied this
place until the termination of
the Fair, November 30, 1893,
and upon him chiefly fell the
arduous labors and grave re-
sponsibilities involved in the
great undertakings in con-
struction and development
called for by his department,
which he fulfilled with emi-
nent success.
He then became the steam heating, sanitary and mechanical
engineer of the firm of D. H. Burnham & Co., architects, and the
exceptional ability with which he conducted his work contrib-
uted greatly to the success of his employers. His work in-
cluded arranging for proper space in the buildings, preparing
specifications, letting the contracts and supervising the installa-
tion of every piece of machinery used in the largest structures,
including not only that for heating, lighting, plumbing and
ventilating, but also the elevators, engines and boilers, dynamos
and motors, circulating pumps and ice machinery. It is stated
that in this connection he developed ideas which have been
revolutionary in their effect upon the refrigerating industry.
In 1899 he developed schemes and prepared specifications
for the steam heating and ventilating of the imperial palace,
then in course of construction at Tokio, for the Crown Prince of
Japan.
224 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Mr. Wilkes was a member not only of the Boston Society
of Civil Engineers, but of The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, The American Society of Heating and Ventilating
Engineers, The Western Association of Engineering Societies
and of the Northwestern Alumni of the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. He was an associate member of the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers and belonged to the University,
Kenwood and Mendelssohn clubs of Chicago.
January 27, 1897, he married, in Chicago, Miss Addie May
Smith. He was a kind and loving husband and his married life
was an exceptionally happy one.
Mr. Wilkes's untimely end is thought to be due to overwork.
About five years ago it caused an acute attack of nephritis, and
thereafter his health was a constant source of anxiety to himself
and to his friends. He so far recovered from this attack, how-
ever, that he successfully met the increasing pressure of business
and covered the broadening field of interests and responsibilities.
December 9, 1904, accompanied by his wife, he went to Phila-
delphia to inspect the work of his department in the Wanamaker
Building, hoping he might also obtain much needed rest. He
had not been as well as usual for some time, but was supposed
to be progressing satisfactorily under a physician's care. With-
out warning, however, came the sudden and fatal change. The
coma of uremic poisoning ensued and without suffering he died
peacefully and quietly January 7, 1905.
The burial was at Joliet, 111., the former home of Mrs. Wilkes.
He possessed exceptional business capacity and had high
ambition for his work. In letters, languages and music he was
gifted and he had unusual ability as a pianist and organist. He
was a sympathetic and witty conversationalist and a delightful
companion. He had a markedly genial nature, was very con-
siderate of others and was steadfast and loyal in his friendship.
H. A. Carson,
Gaetano Lanza,
Committee.
BJW.XKD,
Editors reprinting articles from this Journal are requested to credit the author, the Journal of
the Association, and the Society before which such articles were read.
Association
OF
Engineering Societies.
Organized 1881.
VOL. XXXIV. MAY, 1905. No. 5.
This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for the
statements or opinions of members of the Societies.
RECENT TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS.
By Daniel Breck.
[Read before the Engineers' Club of St. Louis, January 18, 1904.*]
In the production of the recent terminal improvements in
St. Louis, those now constituting the engineering force were
called on, both to define the problems which presented them-
selves and to provide the remedies. That is, the work of this
force did not consist wholly in executing works whose necessity
had been defined by others, but it became their duty, in part,
to look over the situation as a whole, declare wherein terminal
facilities, as. they then existed, were inadequate to handle the
business committed to them, and devise and execute improve-
ments which should, if possible, supply these deficiencies.
This paper will not be a technical description of certain engineer-
ing works, with detailed plans and formulae of applied mathe-
matics, but it is the intention to give a somewhat general view
of the problems as they presented themselves to those whose duty
it was to solve them, and of the methods employed in defining
difficulties and reaching solutions.
The work accomplished, while, perhaps, presenting no very
strikingly novel features of engineering design or construction,
required some unusual applications of general practice, brief
descriptions of which it is hoped will be of some interest.
The whole terminal situation in St. Louis is a very inter-
esting one from a railroad transportation point of view, because
* Manuscript received March 6, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng.
Socs.
226 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
it represents the largest experiment now in progress, in the way
of concentration of railroad transportation, both in freight and
passenger lines. This claim can be sustained without fear of
successful contradiction. This does not imply that there are
more carloads of freight handled by the Terminal Railroad
Association of St. Louis than by any other terminal, or that
more passenger trains or passengers arrive at or depart from its
Union Station than from any other passenger station, because
it is probable that neither of these things is true. It is true,
however, that at St. Louis more railroads have united with this
Terminal Association in having all their terminal work trans-
acted by one agent, than at any other point which can be named.
In a certain sense the question of whether such concentra-
tion could be successfully carried to the point which it has
reached in St. Louis was on trial, and those intrusted with the
problems in St. Louis realized that it was not unlikely that their
success or failure in solving the problems in this case would be
accepted, in many instances at least, as a demonstration that
concentration could or could not be carried successfully to the
point reached here. At the time the improvements were
undertaken, it almost seemed that the demonstration was
against such concentration, and that the great volume of traffic
passing through the terminals had reached such proportions
that it could not be successfully handled and distributed by one
organization. Freight congestions on both sides of the Missis-
sippi River were continuous, and a large proportion of every day's
business was subjected to costly and exasperating delays.
Freight cars in the course of systematic handling, familiar to
all transportation men, would be sidetracked and left for days
or even weeks in certain stagnant points alongside the great
current of movement. The public suffered much inconvenience
from these delays, and no citizen of St. Louis is unfamiliar with
the meaning of the words " freight congestion." In the same
way, there was a great deal of vexatious delay to passenger
traffic, and trains would sometimes be detained for an hour or
more almost within sight of the Union Station, while the pas-
sengers looked longingly at the " promised land." Even if
the through passenger succeeded in reaching the station and
making connection, he was often compelled to leave St. Louis
unconscious of the fact* that his baggage did not accompany
him. If he were a traveling man, of course, when he reached
his destination and learned that his baggage was not on the
train with him, his natural diffidence prevented him from mak-
TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS. 227
ing a great outcry about it, and threatening the Terminal Rail-
road Association of St. Louis with extermination unless the
baggage were delivered to him instantly, whether it was on the
train or not. Seriously, however, this condition of affairs caused
much inconvenience and anxiety to persons who were familiar
with conditions of travel through the St. Louis gateway.
It is hardly doubtful that, if a vote could have been taken
at the time referred to, a decision would have been reached
that it was impossible to handle such business as reached the
St. Louis Union Station regularly without greater delay than
would have been incurred if the station had been broken up into
separate terminals scattered throughout the city.
The decision of this question rested largely with those who
undertook to show that the St. Louis terminals could be so
arranged as to handle the business at one station without abnor-
mal delay. Other cities which found it necessary to undertake
enlargement of their passenger facilities found themselves con-
fronted with the question of whether it would be better to try to
handle all the business of the city in one station or to subdivide
it among several. Kansas City, for example, was debating this
very question ; Chicago was complacently answering it in favor of
the Chicago system, by which the various roads enter four or
five large terminals, widely separated and scattered throughout
the city, making it necessary for their passengers to transfer
from one terminal to the other by some other line of conveyance,
either bus, carriage or street car.
Aside from the fact that the St. Louis terminals had very
large amounts of money invested in the plant at that time,
which fact, itself, was enough to make it necessary to continue
to use one Union Station if it could possibly be accomplished,
the arguments usually advanced in favor of separate terminals,
excluding the question of the feasibility of doing it at all in one
terminal, are based on an economic fallacy. The arguments
that Chicago derives benefit from the transfer of through pas-
sengers by reason of the fact that they have to breakfast in the
town, or have to contribute money which supports the transfer
companies, or that the railroads must hire a large number of
agents to transfer the baggage from one depot to the other,
bring back to mind directly the almost forgotten Erie fight, so-
called, of fifty years ago, which is very interestingly described
in a recent publication by Mr. Frank Spearman, called the
" Strategy of Great Railroads." Briefly stated, that war began
in an effort of two of the short lines of railroad of that day to
228 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
consolidate, one entering Erie, Pa., with a 6-ft. gage and the
other leaving Erie with a 4 ft. 10 in. gage, necessitating transfer
of all freight and passengers at Erie. From Buffalo to Cleve-
land, in those days, two changes of cars were necessary, one at
Dunkirk and one at Erie, and when it was decided to change
the track gage of the roads meeting at Erie, so that passengers
might ride from Buffalo to Cleveland, through Erie, without
changing cars, a local war ensued that has never anywhere been
paralleled in our country. The people of Erie used the same
arguments that we hear used to-day, that Erie would be made a
way station, its hotel business ruined and its busses put out of
business. The transfer of passengers at Erie meant that pas-
sengers had to get meals there, live stock being transferred had
to be fed, reloading of freight gave employment to a large force
of freight handlers, etc. These arguments were so used to stir
up the people that, as told in the volume referred to, on the
morning of December 7, 1853, the people assembled at the ring-
ing of the courthouse bell and tore down the long wooden rail-
road bridge over the river at Erie. During the course of three
years' agitation that followed, this bridge was rebuilt and again
torn down and burned for the same cause. While the Erie war
offers an extreme case of futile resistance to progress, it illus-
trates the fallacy which lies at the bottom of all such opposition ;
and I think it will undoubtedly be demonstrated in the future
that, at least, the great through lines of travel must not be
broken by an intermediate journey on some form of local con-
veyance, with the attendant uncertainty of making connections
with passengers, baggage and mail, and with the growing dis-
position of travelers to accomplish a long journey without even
changing cars. Therefore it was believed that the best interests
of this community would be served if the experiment of han-
dling all travel at one Union Station could be made a success.
Those in charge of the terminals, therefore, found them-
selves, in the language of the street, " up against it." They
found that business, both passenger and freight, was not being
handled in a way to meet modern requirements, and they had
to attack the problem in detail, find out why it was not being
so handled, and what, if anything, could be done to handle it
properly.
The first phase of the problem recognized was a lack of
good internal circulation; that is, lines of free, uninterrupted
movement throughout the property itself. This must include
main lines open for free movement from all outlying parts of
Fig. i. Svstem of Main Tracks as Realized cy the New Constr
TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS. 229
the property leading direct to the Union Station, as well as
ample lines of movement connecting the various important
points within the terminal territory, one with another. These
main lines must not only be constructed, but they must be kept
open for movement, and every device that was known to expe-
dite movement must be adopted to increase the efficiency of
these lines. Therefore, at the thirteen important and compli-
cated crossings or junctions of these lines with themselves or
with the lines of the various individual railroad companies,
elaborate interlocking plants were established, requiring a total
of 976 levers, and along the main lines wherever movement could
be expedited in that way, the lines were equipped with auto-
matic block signaling in such a way as to give continual notice
to trains as soon as the lines were cleared for them to proceed.
Fig. 1 gives an idea of the main lines of the terminal as realized
by these improvements. Almost everywhere the movement
called for at least double-track main lines. At many points,
such as Granite City, Madison yard and along Hall Street, St.
Louis, three and four tracks were provided, while at the point
where the passenger train movement was most concentrated,
namely, opposite the Union Station, seven lines of main track,
one for freight and six for passenger movement, were provided.
This, together with yard re-arrangements, required the build-
ing or rebuilding of over 138 miles of track.
The Eads and Merchants bridges were taken into consid-
eration under the general heading of this main line movement.
It was found that both these bridges required strengthening of
many members in order to put them in condition to carry the
heavy engines now in use. The Eads Bridge was strengthened
so as to take an increased load of 20 per cent., and the Merchants
Bridge an increased load of 30 per cent. Obviously all power
must move freely over these bridges unless they were to present
serious obstruction to proper movement, as the selection of light
power and attaching it to trains before they could move over
the bridges would cause confusion and delay. Furthermore,
if a light engine can take only 25 carloads over the bridge and
a heavy one could take 50, the number of movements would be
doubled if light engines must be used exclusively, and thereby
the number of movements, already too great, would soon have
exceeded the capacity of the tracks.
The tunnel at the west end of the Eads Bridge offered still
further obstruction to free movement. Two interlocking towers,
one at the east end and one at the west end of the tunnel, although
23o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
placed as close to the end of the tunnel as they can properly be,
are about i.i miles apart, and the time required by a train to
clear the distance between them is approximately four minutes.
In addition to other incidental disadvantages of operating in
this tunnel, there is a sharp curve, nearly 120, about midway in
the tunnel, and the section of the tunnel is so small as to prevent
the proper elevation of track to allow for a high-speed movement
around this ctirve. Furthermore, for the most obvious reasons,
the tunnel is operated under what is known as the absolute
lock and block system, that is, one train cannot enter the tunnel
until a train preceding it on the same track has gone entirely
through the tunnel and come out at the other end. This pro-
tection is secured by a system of interlocked signals requiring
the concurrence of the operators at both ends of the tunnel
before train movement is allowed through the tunnel. As easily
seen, the result of this is, that only fifteen trains can use the
tunnel in each direction per hour, and as there were times both
morning and evening when trains were leaving and arriving at
the station at the rate of 89 trains in 60 minutes, those destined
via the tunnel even came to a greater number than 1 5 per hour.
The Merchants Bridge was, however, not being worked to its
full capacity ; so the main lines were made to include an opening
up of routes in such a way that traffic which had been going
over the Eads Bridge could be, if necessary, diverted over the
Merchants Bridge. In this way, even high-speed passenger
trains which formerly ran through the tunnel and over the Eads
Bridge were made to take the comparatively circuitous but
relatively high-speed line over the Merchants Bridge, with the
result that, as in the case of the Vandalia and Baltimore & Ohio
lines especially, the loss of time was only from three to five
minutes over schedule, while the actual loss of time which might
have amounted to an hour or more was saved.
If this were a technical paper, the whole of it might well
be devoted to a description of the work on the Eads Bridge.
This is in itself a very beautiful structure. It is a continual
source of interest and pleasure to observe the intricate and
everchanging geometrical figures which appear in fine tracery
when the lines of this bridge are silhouetted against the sky.
The work of strengthening it, which was done by Mr. J. C. Bland,
engineer of bridges of the Pennsylvania lines west of Pittsburg,
has been done in such a way as certainly not to mar in the
slightest degree the beauty of the bridge. The scientific way in
which strengthening members have been applied at the weak
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TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS. 231
spots would be most interesting in detail, and the results in
strengthening as well as in stiffening the bridge against oscillation
have been very gratifying. A description of the examination
of the tubes of which the arches of this bridge are composed,
certain holes being drilled and the inside of the tubes being
examined by means of small electric lights and reflecting mirrors,
as well as of the means adopted for carrying certain portions of
the bridge by means of supplementary members while certain
connecting pins, which had become corroded, were repaired,
would also be interesting, but only this reference will be made
to it. Many smaller steel bridges and trestles were also built
at various points.
Following the construction of the main lines, the next
thing was to provide largely increased freight storage and
switching facilities to care for the large daily volume of freight
cars handled within the yards and keep the main lines clear.
In accomplishing this a great deal of new construction and re-
arrangement was necessary in the switching yards. Independ-
ent drill tracks were provided in numerous cases, where the
yards had been drilled on such main lines as then existed.
Among the first work of this kind undertaken was the con-
struction of an artificial gravity or " hump " yard at East St.
Louis, of which a plan and profile is shown in Fig. 2.
In order to get accurate data as to the amount of switch-
ing actually done in this yard, an accountant was stationed near
the drill track, and the actual time when each cut of cars began
to pass, the number of cars, and the time when the last car was
switched, was set down.
From the data thus obtained it was learned that the switch-
ing capacity of a yard of this character is not less than 100 cars
per hour with a percentage of 80 switches to each 100 cars,
almost every car in this switching having a different destination.
Apparently this rate could be maintained throughout the 24
hours if the yard were large enough. The tracks of this yard,
however, were not long enough to get the full benefit of the rapid
switching, as the shorter tracks were very quickly filled up, and
until they could be emptied the switching must be stopped.
Various alterations were made to separate and untangle
conflicting lines of movement at the entrances to the various
yards, and the yards in many instances were subdivided by con-
structing more than one drill track, thus enabling more than one
engine to work at one time without interference one with another.
These matters are more interesting when illustrated in detail
232 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
with a description from actual conditions of the lines of move-
ment for which provision was made, and the method of sub-
dividing the yards so that more than one engine could work
continuously. Figs. 3 and 4 show the old and new arrange-
ment of tracks at the East St. Louis ranging yard.
On a terminal property like this the question of interchange
tracks for interchanging business with connections becomes one
of first importance, and groups itself with freight storage and
handling facilities. These interchange tracks are, under the
usual railroad practice, in duplicate, each road furnishing a
track on which it receives business delivered to it by the other.
Properly located, these interchange tracks should be at the
junction of the two lines, and each road should be able to make
deliveries without going on each other's main line. The capacity
of these interchange tracks to hold cars, the prompt and regular
clearing of them, and the keeping of them clear as often as they
are filled, is the most essential feature of handling the Terminal
Association's business, and 90 per cent, of all delay and con-
gestion experienced by the Association within the past three
years may be traced to failure at the interchange tracks by one
or the other of the parties to the interchange. To facilitate
this interchange the terminal has recently built tracks, con-
veniently situated, at many points, among which may be men-
tioned the Valley Division of the Iron Mountain, the Southern,
Louisville & Nashville, St. Louis & O'Fallon, Baltimore & Ohio,
Vandalia, and Troy & Eastern connections with the Illinois Trans-
fer in Illinois, and the Wabash on the West Belt in Missouri, which,
with various arrangements that have been made at other points,
will take care of a total of nearly 1,200 cars. This contributes
directly to the free interchange of business, and means that
where two years ago 1,200 cars were held over for interchange,
they can now be delivered at once. This means 1,200 cars at
one time, and with proper effort these interchange tracks could
be handled two, or even three, times per day.
For the proper care of the Terminal Company's equipment,
which consists principally of 99 locomotives, railway repair
shops have been erected at Brooklyn, 111., consisting of a power
house, 11-stall machine shop, embracing boiler shop and black-
smith shop, with all necessary machine tools, transfer tables,
wood and paint shop, store house, oil house, 16-stall roundhouse
and complete coal, sand and water station.
So far, in increasing the terminal facilities, we have dealt
with main lines, with freight car yards and switching capacity,
\
\
Fig. 4. East St. Louis Freight Yard as it now is — 1905. Scat.k i
PLAN DF TRACKS
UNION STATION
AT
ST. LOUIS MO.
SHOWING
INTERLOCKING 5WITCHE5
AND 5IGNAL5.
Jan'Y. 1898.
Scale - ]'■*■- 50 ET-
Flo. 5. Okicinal Pus ok Tracks, Union Static
TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS. 233
these being the foundation for all terminal work, and, having
thus cleared the ground, the question of increasing the capacity
of the Union Station was next approached.
It was obvious from the first that any effort to improve
the track plan in front of the station would involve the most
radical re-arrangement and extremely heavy expenditure. The
question was therefore approached with the utmost gravity,
but operations were demonstrating day by day that even the
ordinary business of that period was in excess of the capacity of
the track system. This was previous to the World's Fair, and
the authorities of the Fair estimated that the attendance would
be between 30,000,000 and 35,000,000 people, which, of course,
would be largely in addition to the normal travel.
Obviously, therefore, something must be done, and the
weighty interests involved determined the undertaking, al-
though the expense from the outset seemed almost prohibitive.
By an examination of the old track layout at the station
shown in Fig. 5, it will be seen, to begin with, that the express
mildings had been brought down to within 75 ft. of the central
xis of the train shed, thus constricting the " throat " in such
a way that it could not be widened without moving these build-
ings.
Furthermore, there were the strictest limitations to what
could be done due to the short distance, 1,103 ft., from the south
end of the train shed to the private property of railroad lines to
the south, which those lines considered indispensable to the con-
duct of their own business, and which the Terminal therefore
could not secure. Further limitations were found on the east
in the Eighteenth Street viaduct, and on the west in the Twenty-
first Street viaduct, and even if there had been time to negotiate
for alterations in these viaducts, which there was not, it was
extremely doubtful whether the city would have consented to
any alterations. In fact, in view of the reception which the
Terminal Association met from the city when it asked for cer-
tain privileges from it, which are conspicuously trivial as far
as the city is concerned, there is every reason to think that the
city would have refused to allow any alterations. Therefore,
all improvement in the track layout had to be made within
the area bounded on the south by a line 1,103 ft. from the south
end of the old train shed, on the east by the Eighteenth Street
viaduct, and on the west by the Twenty -first Street viaduct.
This gave an amount of room entirely insufficient for making
an ideal, or even an approximately good, track layout, and
,i
234 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
the result of all the study that could be brought to bear by those
engaged appears in the new track layout, which, while not good,
is, it is to be hoped, the best that could be secured within those
limitations. The new track arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.
These changes, of course, involved the entire removal of
the old interlocking plant (the largest in the world at the time
it was built, only 10 years previous), and also the removing of
the power house, which had been considered at the time of its
erection, 10 years before, to be sufficient for many years to
come. The largely increased demands on the power house also
made it necessary to almost double the power to be provided;
and it will be readily seen that improvements of the nature just
described would be enormously expensive.
Furthermore, the time in which the work must be accom-
plished was known to be very short, and was shortened by
negotiations with the city, which, although they finally came
to nothing, had the result of crowding the work into an almost
impracticably short time. The expense of doing this work so
hurriedly was enormously increased; and no one who has been
connected with any work in St. Louis during the period of the
World's Fair will fail to understand how labor conditions also
affected the cost of work done within that period.
The work was also thrown into the winter months and an
illustration will show some of the difficulties encountered. In
laying the track south of the train shed during last winter we
found that the ground was frozen so that it would have been
almost as easy to pick away flint rock as it was to get through
the frost. Therefore the simple expedient was adopted of
spreading wooden trash and splinters over large areas of ground
and burning it the night before, to that by morning the ground
would be sufficiently thawed to enable men to pick it. A large
proportion of the track in front of the station was laid by this
means.
Space forbids any mention of the details of the new 2,750
h. p. power house and permits only a reference to the interlock-
ing plant, which is the largest in the world, controlling as it does
67 double slips, 91 switches and 287 signals from the three
towers. The central tower contains the largest machine of 215
levers, 45 ft. 9 in. long, which is the largest in the world, the
next largest being the one at Long Island City of 167 levers. The
complexity of the track layout is shown by the fact that there
are 1,827 possible routes through this plant, one lever (No.
190-L) alone controlling 146 movements. The system includes
».-. <•«,>•«•.. ■ .•• *.,
Fig. 6. Present Plan of Tracks, Union Sia
~~)
TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS. 235
electric annunciators by which the men in the tower are informed
whether any tracks under the shed are occupied by any car or
engine, and by which the trainmen get a high-speed signal from
outlying points , indicating that they may proceed at a high rate
of speed to their destination in the train shed, the route being
set up and the track clear, as well as electric inter-connection
between the towers by which the cooperation of operators in
each of two towers is necessary to control signals at the point
where the interlocking from the two towers unites.
Among the items especially interesting on account of the
novelty of its application, may be mentioned Gray's Telauto-
graph, which is used for publishing and recording information
sent from tower No. 1 to five points in the station, announcing
the arrival and departure of trains. This is, as its name implies,
an electrical reproducing machine, which reproduces from one
sending station the actual handwriting of the operator at as
many duplicating stations as may be required. Obviously, the
current work of the station requires that many points be in-
formed of the time and place of the arrival and departure of every
train. The dispatchers on the property are located in Tower
No. 1, and they get advice by wire as soon as any incoming train
reaches any one of the numerous terminal junction points.
That information is immediately published by the telautograph
at the five points, namely, the station master's office, bureau
of information, baggage master's office, baggage handling sub-
way and the south end of the train shed, in order that everybody
may be informed that, for example, Burlington train No. 8
was approaching and would arrive on track No. 17, 7.19 a.m.
This enables the bureau of information to tell the public
when that train will arrive and on what track. It enables the
station master to arrange his men to meet it. It enables the
baggage master to send his trucks and men to the proper point
and makes possible the proper disposition of men and trucks in
the subway for handling the baggage, mail and express. This
device is described in a pamphlet issued by the United States
Patent Office, and was on exhibition at the World's Fair. The
United States Government makes use of it to enable a range
finder, stationed some distance away, to communicate with a
gun battery, as it fills all the requirements of this most exact-
ing service. It makes errors — except initial errors of the
sender — impossible. It leaves an accurate record, it is secret,
noiseless, visible, and it can be operated by any one who can
write. So far, its application in the Union Station has given
2 3 6
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
absolute satisfaction and the derangements have been almost
absolutely nothing. Fig. 7 shows a sample of its reproduction
work.
QJ7M /* adasYwJ^
'ac /J 2- £■/£ d- ft (J V,
/^) -r- •" » V ATJ" ^^ '^> /«?" <^
/S)~ J
As Written in Pencil at the Sending Station. As Reproduced in Ink at the Receiving Station.
Fig. 7. Facsimile of Telautographic Records. Reduced One Half.
Another interesting departure from ordinary methods is
in the application of pneumatic tubes to the baggage service.
The vast volume of baggage handled at the station made it
impossible to concentrate the work of the checkmen or of the
public, some of whom must see the baggage themselves, as so
great a bulk as that comprised by the great number of large
trunks, chests, etc., must spread over a large territory. Under
the old method of handling the baggage, the checkman in many
cases must take the passenger's ticket and hunt up a trunk in
whatever pile it might be located, which might be several hun-
dred feet away, attach check and bring duplicate to the pas-
TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS. 237
senger, or the passenger might be required through some lack
of identification to pick out the baggage himself.
Instead of trying to remedy this, the situation was accepted,
and the separation of the checkman from the baggage was made
final and complete. The baggage was taken into a subway
constructed for the purpose across the south end of the train
shed and delivered underneath the track from which it would
finally leave, while the checkman was put into communication
with an attendant stationed at the baggage, by means of a
pneumatic tube which covered the intervening space separating
the checkman from the baggage.
Study of the old conditions has also shown the long distance
which the baggage had to be transported after it was checked,
in order to reach the train. It was received in the old baggage
house on Twentieth Street opposite Walnut Street and had to be
trucked on an average nearly 1,200 ft. Not only that, but it
had to be trucked across tracks at grade, and as these tracks were
often found occupied by long trains or by arriving or departing
trains, close connections were continually being missed. Acci-
dents were also common, the baggage trucks being run into by
incoming trains. By means of the subway this trucking is cut
down to a very small percentage of what it has formerly been,
and all danger of collisions averted. Some of the details of
handling baggage in this way would be interesting, but it may
be said that the plan was a success, and, in many instances,
baggage under the new system was loaded on the train, after
being checked, before the passenger could walk from the check-
ing counter and get on the train himself. The baggage was
never so well handled as was the enormous volume of baggage
handled during the Fair, the number of pieces handled during
that period being 1,739,000 as compared with 885,467 of the
preceding year.
The large system of hydraulic elevators which raises or
lowers the baggage between the subway and the train-shed level
is also interesting. The room that could be occupied by the
elevator platform was very limited and its shape was determined
by the narrow train-shed platform of which it must form a part.
The elevator hatchways are protected by steel gates which
rise 3+ ft. as the elevator descends, the motion of the gates being
only half as rapid as that of the elevator, thereby minimizing
the danger of any one being caught and injured by the gate.
The elevators have a maximum capacity of 4,000 lbs. each,
under a pressure of 600 lbs. to the sq. in., and with a 2,500 lb.
23S ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
load a speed of 150 ft. per minute. They are, however, tested
to 1,000 lbs. and can be run at that pressure with a correspond-
ing increase in speed and capacity. (See Fig. 8.)
There are 37 of these elevators, — 18 being for baggage along
the north side of the main subway, 17 for mail and express along
the south side of the subway , and 2 for mail in what is known as
the Post Office Annex.
The system of subways radiates from a main subway, which
is 97 ft. wide and 601 ft. long, as shown in Fig. 9. Following
my first intentions to discuss only the broader lines of this work,
details of drainage and sewerage will only be touched upon.
One of the problems of sewerage that had to be contended with
arose from the fact that the city sewers underneath the subways
are insufficient to carry off the heaviest volumes of water during
periods of storm, and the sewers fill up to a height of perhaps
20 ft. above the bottom of the subway, giving a static outward
pressure of water equal to about 9 lbs. per sq. in. To force the
sewage from the subways into the sewers against this pressure
Shone ejector pumps were installed in a sump located as shown
in Fig. 9.
To facilitate the handling of passengers around the head
house during the period of the Fair, a second midway, 50 X 570
ft., was constructed south of the old midway, for classifying and
handling passengers when crowds were very heavy. Two wide
stairways leading from the midway to the second floor of head
house were installed. The ticket office was altered so as to form
a rectangle enclosed within the waiting room, giving space for
36 ticket sellers. A toilet room with 88 water closets, 48 urinals,
34 wash basins and 58 private rooms with water closets, wash
basins and hot and cold water, was constructed in the basement
under the west end of the head house.
For the purpose of handling locomotives with unusual dis-
patch during the period of the World's Fair, especially locomo-
tives of the lines using the station, there was constructed at
Fourteenth Street a coaling plant for coaling locomotives, com-
bined with ash handling machinery for cleaning fires, and
facilities for supplying water and sand. This plant has a stor-
age capacity for 1,000 tons of coals, raised by duplicate hoisting
machinery. Its ash handling machinery will take care of fires
from 20 engines at one time. Three engine houses of rectangular
shape, with a total capacity of 61 engines, were also built adja-
cent to this coaling plant.
Having thus given an outline, and, at best, a brief one, of
Fig. 8. Showing Upper Positions of Main Subway Elevators with Reference to Cars on Ahjaclnt Tracks, and to Trucks on Train Shed 1'latkoi
p-
w
l c
It
-
TERMINAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ST. LOUIS. 239
the scope of the work undertaken, it is sufficient to say that the
terminal is, at present, equipped to handle all freight business
as rapidly as the lines which now connect with it in St. Louis
are prepared to deliver and take it away.
Also that as far as the Union Station is concerned, the
operating officials have estimated that they could have handled
an increase of 40 per cent, of the passenger business that came
to them durinar the World's Fair.
24o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
SOME DETAILS OF RECONSTRUCTION WORK, ST. LOUIS
UNION STATION.
By A. P. Greensfelder, Member of the Engineers' Club of St. Louis.
[Read before the Club, January 18, 1904.*]
Nearly two years ago, the writer read a paper before this
Club, entitled " Proposed Improvements in St. Louis Termi-
nals." This paper was printed in the Journal of the Asso-
ciation of Engineering Societies in January, 1904, was
written at a time when the Terminal Railroad Association of
St. Louis was in the midst of its planning and construction
work, and merely outlined proposed plans of improvements.
Most of the work mentioned at that time has been completed,
although it was necessary to make some few changes due to
lack of space and franchise privileges. Chief Engineer
Daniel Breck has outlined some of the necessities for these
improvements and additions and has stated some general prin-
ciples governing the essential features of their design.
Mr. J. L. Armstrong, as engineer, Maintenance of Way,
had direct supervision of this reconstruction work.
The territory covered by these reconstructions is so large
and their magnitude is such, however, that it would be imprac-
ticable to describe the work in detail at all points. The writer,
therefore, will confine this paper to that work under his
especial charge, as assistant engineer, which has to do with the
St. Louis Union Station and vicinity.
In planning the work, it was endeavored to obtain designs
which would accomplish the desired results in a manner as
nearly theoretically correct as possible. Then, when prac-
tical obstacles or conflicting conditions necessitated revisions,
careful study was exercised to prevent such necessary modifi-
cations from being radical. It is manifestly impracticable, how-
ever, in adapting improvements to existing facilities to secure
results as desirable as might be accomplished by entirely new
constructions. Three eminent factors, therefore, governed
largely in the design and execution of this work: first, designs
as suitable as possible within the fixed areas and limiting con-
ditions; second, their completion within the time limit, and,
third, their construction without interference with existing
traffic.
* Manuscript received March 6, 1905. — Secretary, Ass'n of Eng. Socs.
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 241
The improvements considered essential were, increased
coach storage capacity; increased number of lead tracks into
the station; main track rearrangement, permitting increased
simultaneous train movement; yard readjustment, necessitat-
ing' less switching; additional interlocking, permitting more
rapid train movement; additional length of train-shed tracks;
protection of longer trains by train-shed extension; additional
express house and yard space; increased baggage storage area;
elimination of grade crossing of trains and trucks; better facil-
ities for handling baggage, mail and express by means of sys-
tem of subways; widening of passenger concourse and adop-
tion of double-gate system; pneumatic tube system for baggage
check interchange between subway and checking counter;
telautograph transmission of train movement information from
yards to station house; increased counter length and space in
the ticket office; increase in parcel rooms, lavatory and lunch
rooms in headhouse; additional mail building; new and larger
power house; a larger coaling station for cleaning, watering,
coaling and sanding engines; and engine houses for care and
storage of engines.
This work, for consideration in construction, may be divided
as follows :
'1) Preparation of site.
2) Temporary structures and false work.
3) Excavation.
^4) Drainage.
^5) Masonry.
^6) Structural steel work.
[7) Buildings.
^8) Flooring and roofing.
^9) Track work and interlocking.
10) Power generation and transmission.
11) Lighting.
12) Fittings and appurtenances.
[n considering these subjects, the reasons for adoption
of the various plans and methods will be touched upon and the
work itself briefly described.
Preparation of Site.
In order to gain a proper conception of this reconstruction
work, it is essential to bear in mind the difficulties which had
to be overcome and the conditions encountered. After the
first governing factor of the work — the design — had been
242 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
decided upon, there remained the other two factors, which were
not so readily disposed of, i. e., finishing the work before the
World's Fair period, and taking care of existing traffic mean-
while. The situation was interesting in the extreme. At the
time of beginning work in the field the traffic conditions were
already severe, the facilities for handling business being even
then inadequate, the main tracks constantly busy, and the
freight and passenger yards overcrowded. The reconstruction
plans were radical. New main tracks must be built where
stood the old express buildings and power house; new leads
must be laid cutting through the very center of existing yards;
freight team yards must be removed to provide space for new
passenger yards; tracks into the train shed must be raised and
extended without interruption of service; old buildings must
be torn down and replaced by new ones, larger in every respect
and differently located; and a system of subways must be built
beneath both old and new tracks.
It was evident that in order to finish the work on time it
would be necessary to start at many points simultaneously.
This seemed imperative, yet could not exactly be accomplished,
because the new facilities must be built on space occupied by
old ones, and the old ones could not be removed until proper
provision could be made elsewhere for handling their business.
The interdependency of each of the facilities involved con-
siderations affecting almost every department of the railroad.
The subway could not be finished until the train-shed tracks
could be extended in their new positions; the train-shed tracks
could not be removed from the old system of tracks until they
could be connected to new leads over which trains could reach
them from the new mains; these new lead tracks could not be
built until the old express houses were removed; it was impos-
sible to demolish the old express houses until new buildings
could be erected on the west side, and the new express build-
ings being located in the center of the old Twenty-first Street
coach yard, work on them could not proceed until coach storage
space was provided elsewhere.
This merely serves as one example of the conditions encoun-
tered in the execution of the new plans. The same complica-
tions presented themselves on every hand. Car-repair shops
had to be built in East St. Louis before like facilities at Eight-
eenth Street could be wiped out to permit the location of the
new power house. The new roundhouse and shops being
built at Brooklyn had to be finished in order to provide for
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 243
locomotives formerly handled in the buildings at Sixteenth
Street, which had to be removed to permit construction of the
new coaling plant. The three new engine houses were built up
in the midst of and above the freight yard at Fourteenth Street,
which could not be removed until tracks could be provided at
other points.
It was impossible to provide temporary facilities in any
large degree, because there was no vacant space available.
Adverse city legislation prohibiting crossing of streets to
reach certain property desired for the proper arrangement of
facilities in this vicinity, and delay in securing any final
legislative action at all, interfered largely with the execution of
the work and necessitated changes in the plans. The only
ground, therefore, added to that already used for railroad pur-
poses by the Terminal Association in Mill Creek Valley — as
the territory covered by the network of tracks from Grand
Avenue to the Mississippi River is called — was a piece of land
at Atlantic Street, between Jefferson and Ewing avenues,
being then excavated for quarry purposes, a tract between
Montrose and Compton Avenue, farther west, and two narrow
strips secured from the Missouri Pacific and Wabash railroads
between Eighteenth and Twenty-third streets.
A study of the entire situation developed the necessity
therefore, for the arrangement of these tracts at Atlantic Street
and Compton Avenue for coach storage and freight team yards,
respectively, before much rearrangement could be accom-
plished nearer the station. Work was accordingly started on
November 1, 1902, filling, up the 25-foot hole in the quarry
in this Atlantic Street yard, by scrapers and wagons, taking
dirt from the points above grade; and on December 12, 1902,
a steam shovel was started in Compton Avenue yard, excavat-
ing the 5- to 1 5 -foot bank at that point. Progress in grading
during the winter months was slow, and it was not until the
latter part of the next summer that sufficient space had been
cleared to lay a few tracks for coach storage at Atlantic Street.
Meanwhile, work for excavation had begun at the west end
of the main subway. The old Twenty -first Street freight yard
was being rearranged by cutting off a few car lengths in the
end of several tracks and building a few new tracks transversely
in the space thus vacated, so that the cars switched off the old
tracks in the morning could be placed upon the new ones that
same night. The old carpenter shops and the old Pullman
Commissary Building at Twentieth Street were also demol-
244 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ished. From this stage, the work progressed as rapidly as pos-
sible, adapting itself to the various circumstances and condi-
tions as they arose, and was well completed in time for the
extraordinary World's Fair traffic. A composite plan of the
situation is shown in Fig. i.
Temporary Structures and False Work.
In order to hasten the work at various points, it was abso-
lutely necessary to remove certain of the old facilities before
the permanent new ones were finished and ready, and in some
cases, therefore, temporary facilities had to be provided. It
was naturally endeavored to locate such temporary structures
in positions where they would not interfere with the new work
or hinder the operation of the old plant. Space was so limited,
however, and there was so little area available for storage of
new material that this could seldom be done.
Temporary coach repair tracks had to be provided at
several places one after the other as the tracks could be spared,
and the planking taken up and put down as needed. In the
coach yards were located a number of repair shops belonging
to the various roads handling their own coaches. The expe-
dient was adopted of placing the repair tools and such material
as these shops contained in old box cars and moving them about
as desired. Where this was not advisable, as in the instance
of the Chicago & Alton and Wabash, which had buildings located
over the west subway, the structures were raised and moved
bodily. In order to begin work on the east end of the main
subway, it was necessary to demolish a portion of the two-
story brick building of the Adams Express Company, and, to
accommodate their business, a two-story frame structure, 50 X
80 ft., was built on the north end of their old building.
In order to excavate for the system of subways which is
located directly under the tracks leading into the train shed,
it was necessary to build considerable false work. Trestle work
was built under each of the 25 tracks crossing the main subway,
and under the lead tracks over the south, east and west branch
subways. Three 30-ft. piles per bent were used for this tem-
porary work, shown in Fig. 2, upon which were laid a 12 X
12 in. cap, 2 -ply 8 X 16 in. stringers and 8X8 in. ties
spaced 16 in. c.c. This false work had to be built under the
very wheels of almost constant traffic, and rapid work was ne-
cessary. The piles, placed by a car driver run in on a track be-
tween trains, and working a few hours at a time, were 30-ft.
EXPLANATION :
=== = = Proposed Tracks 5
== Present Tracks £
=— = Forelgu Tracks
CLARK AVE,
Fig. 1 . Plan, Showing Present and Proposed Tracks in Vicinity of Union Station.
December 8, 1902.
Scale, 1 inch = 300 feet.
nil
----.--ttz
--■Er — 11 — rr-
i i n
-.r.V.r, .--^
==:s^;
3j||
-,-,-ij-ij,- ., . 1 1 -. - -
IT T' '3E
■/; ■ e : . ■ — ,• .ip — difcH — ^ 'diri^
*en
pi
.-.,-■
I-'ic. 2. Falsewokk ovfcK Main Subwa
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 245
rough hard-wood piles driven until their heads were below top
of rail in spans of from 6^ to 15 ft., so as to miss the permanent
masonry work.
In order to reduce the amount of excavation, save hauling
of earth by using same for back-fill, to permit reconstruction
of the large sewer in Twentieth Street according to a new profile
authorized by the city, and to lighten the heavy grades of the
wagon approaches to the subway, the tracks over the main
subway were raised 2.5 ft. This was done without harm to
platform levels, and eliminated the 0.5% grade halfway down
the old train shed. As these tracks could only be spared for
some hours at a time, the false work was framed ready, before
th.e old rails were taken up. Excavation for the caps was then
made, the pile heads sawed off, the corbels and stringers set,
ties placed, spacing blocks set between the ties to prevent
bunching in case of derailment, rails relaid and connected up
to the old track, the interlocking rearranged and the tracks
turned over for service again within the allotted period.
Permanent white oak 2 5 -ft. piling was driven under the
train shed and subway piers, after excavating to the subway
floor level, by the same track driver on the false work above,
using a sliding extension lead and following 28 ft. The
last 10 ft. of following being through hard clay, considerable
difficulty was encountered in withdrawing the timber follower
from the ground, until a 16-in. block and falls, with a ij-in.
hemp rope attached to the drum of the pile driver engine, was
used.
Excavation.
Various methods were suggested and employed for exca-
vating. At the power house, coaling station and engine houses,
where the quantities were small, the only feasible method was
by hand, casting the earth several times if necessary to load on
flat cars placed on adjacent tracks. For the subways, express
and mail building adjoining, covering an area of about 5 acres
and involving the handling of over 125,000 cu. yds. of earth,
the question was a greater one.
Where false work had been driven over the main subway
the headroom was too small for dippers, and the bents would
have interfered with steam shovel work, or an orange-peel
bucket working from above. This latter plan, as well as any
surface method of excavation, would have required the aban-
donment or use of two or more tracks, or have interfered with
the leads into the train shed, which could not be permitted at
246 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
that time. These reasons, as well as the desirability of keeping
construction trains from interfering with passenger traffic, led
to the adoption of the method of sub-surface working.
Work was begun from both ends, on the west side on Nov-
ember 18, 1902, and on the east side January 2, 1903. Exca-
vation was made by pick and shovel, loading into flat cars run
in on temporary standard gage tracks, gradually lowering the
cut until,when the exterior lines of false work were reached, the
fiat cars could clear the stringers. Headings were then made
and the tracks gradually extended through the wide panels,
the earth being also loaded from the sides, as the cars were
placed. Three tracks were run from the west end and one
from the east, and joined near the center. When the earth had
been excavated casting distance away from the cars, wheel-
barrows were put in service on plank runways nailed to the
false work piles, and often 125 cars a day were loaded in this
manner.
Previous to starting excavation, borings with a hand auger
to depths of 30 ft. had been made all over the area covered by
the subways, and showed 15 to 20 feet of loose filled ground
overlying a blue sandy clay on the west, running into a natural
yellow clay bank on the east and southeast portions of the site.
This territory having years ago been covered by a lake or bayou
known as " Chouteau's Pond " had been gradually filled up as
the city grew larger. Little trouble was experienced from earth
sliding, although some bracing fastened to the piling was used in
places, especially during excavations for piers where pit fram-
ing was necessary to prevent movement of the oily clay or its
sand bearing material. Quicksand was encountered in only
one pocket, at the north accumulator pit, 25 ft. deep, between
tracks Numbers 2 and 3. The concrete sides of the 10 X
10 ft. pit were then built from the quicksand surface up, and
a -j-in. sheet-steel cylinder, 9 ft. 6 in. in diameter, braced by
circular 3 X 3 X f in. angles, was sunk, the material being
excavated from inside this shell as it was forced down by screw-
jacks. To retain the quicksand, a 24-in. concrete footing
was then laid, a f-in. concentric steel cylinder, 8 ft. 6 in.
diameter, placed inside the outer shell, and the space between
the two filled with concrete to form a permanent ring in case
the steel corrodes away.
Where the subways ran through the old express buildings,
advantage was taken of the fact that these buildings rested on
piles, to push the excavation under them, by the use of proper
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RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 247
bracing. Incandescent lights were strung over the false work
and excavation carried on in ten-hour day and night shifts.
Five thousand cars were loaded, mostly during the winter months
of January and February, 1903, and January, 1904. The base-
ments of the five express buildings being on the same level as
the subway floor, this block was excavated by steam shovel and
diggers loading into wagons or cars, and by wheel scrapers.
The steam shovel with a one-yard dipper and 100 men, loading
into 35 wagons hauling 400 to 500 ft., often excavated in 10
hours over 1 ,000 cu. yds., of which 45% was loaded by the steam
shovel.
Drainage.
The territory in this vicinity is drained into the city sewer
system through the Twentieth Street and Camp Spring sewers,
emptying into the 15 X 20 ft. Mill Creek sewer just south
of the station. The 7 X 8 ft. oval brick sewer on Twentieth
Street projected above the level of the basement floor, and
made it necessary to rebuild both it and the intercepting
branch where they joined under the Adams Express Building.
A new profile and cross section were adopted, and, as the
sewer was subjected to a floor load from above of 250 lbs. per
sq. ft., and an interior head of 20 ft., a concrete steel design
was selected.
Reconstruction work was also necessary where a 2 X
3 ft. sewer crossed the north subway under the midway. This
was rebuilt in concrete, side and bottom forms removed, and
a concrete expanded-metal slab roof slipped in place and ce-
mented down. During construction work, the subways and
buildings above the subway floor line were drained into city
sewers, but pockets and pits had to be cleared by two small
steam pumps.
The finished, sub way and express buildings are drained by
a thorough system of 8 -in. and 12-in. vitrified pipe leading to
a manhole in the south subway. This manhole connects through
a back trap with the city sewer, and with another outlet to two
250-gal. Shone ejectors, located in a 10 X 15 ft. sump 15 ft.
deep, shown in Fig. 4. The normal flow is direct from the man-
hole to the city sewer, but when this main fills and closes the
back trap, the sewage overflows into the ejectors which start
and work automatically under 15 lbs. air pressure, and force
water into the sewer main against a head of 20 ft. The sump,
itself, and the two deep accumulator pits are drained of
seepage water, when necessary, by small 4^ X 3! in. brass-
248 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
lined pumps run by compressed air and operated, when neces-
sary, a few minutes daily.
Six-inch vitrified tile has been laid with open joints behind
all masonry walls to drain them and prevent, hydrostatic pres-
sure from causing leaks through the mortar facing. The trough
floor supporting the 32 tracks over the main subway is drained
through holes in the center of each trough into an 8-in. 20-oz..
copper gutter suspended below, which leads to a 6-in. tile run
down the south wall of the subway, as seen in Fig. 5.
Masonry.
Concrete was the only masonry used in all this work. A
mixture of 1 part by volume of Portland cement, 3 parts Mis-
sissippi River sand, and 6 parts of St. Louis screened limestone
was used on all building foundations and work subject only
to stable loading, while a 1:3:5 mixture was adopted to with-
stand moving engine loads.
The forms used for this work were made of if-in. yellow
pine tongue-grooved planed lumber laid horizontally and sup-
ported by 6 X 6 in. posts spaced 3 to 6 ft. c.c, depending
on height of walls. These forms were used many times over
and gave a smooth finish.
Concrete was hand mixed in some places, unloading the
material from cars directly on to the mixing boards wherever
possible, the boards being usually kept near places for deposit
of the concrete. Where traffic conditions rendered it impossi-
ble to keep supply cars on hand at all times, the materials had
to be stored at convenient points in order to keep the work
moving. A 1 cu. yd. Ransome intermittent machine seemed
to give better results than any other class of mixing. The
materials were wheeled from the cars in barrows on to an ele-
vated platform, dumped into the machine in the proper pro-
portions, sufficient water added through a faucet in a gaged
barrel, the machine turned a few times and then emptied into
a trough, feeding the finished concrete by gravity into wheel-
barrows below.
A 1 cu. yd. McCelvey continuous mixer, run by a small
steam engine, was placed in a temporary shed at the west end
of the main subway and supplied most of the concrete for the
long north and south walls. Drop-bottom cars were brought in
on an elevated trestle, and the materials emptied into storage bins.
The rock and sand were then fed into gaging pans, the cement
added, and the whole gradually dumped into the mixer below.
pJK-r. Jfc
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 249
Two gaging pans were alternately used to keep the mixer sup-
plied, but constant rate of feed was hard to obtain at all times,
and this , together with the difficulty in correspondingly varying
the water supply, gave resulting concrete not always of the
desired consistency.
On all exterior walls of the subway, a mortar facing, ij in.
thick on the outside and 1 in. thick on the inside, was built up
with the walls to make them water-proof. A 1 : 3 mortar was
made, using washed Meramec River sand free of lignite.
The metal plate system was adopted in placing this facing,
using 10-in. plates 6 to 8 ft. long. The concrete was placed
in 9-in. layers and thoroughly rammed with 12-lb. tampers
until water flushed to the surface. This concrete presents a
very neat appearance, although the east walls of the express
buildings, which were spade-faced, are smooth as well. Work
was carried on day and night, as many as 200 men working on
concrete at one time for the subway and express buildings alone.
Forty thousand barrels of cement were used in the two latter
structures, and 14,000 bbls. on the adjacent buildings, including
the coaling station, engine houses and interlocking towers. All
cement was tested in the laboratory of the Terminal Associa-
tion before acceptance and use on the work, and over 5,000
briquettes were made and broken. North Hampton, Pa., Atlas
and Mitchell, Ind., Lehigh were the two brands most largely
used.
The north and south walls of the main subway, seen in
Fig- 3» were designed as ordinary abutments and retaining walls,
but in the branch subways advantage was taken of the fact
that the parallel walls were near together to adopt a more eco-
nomical construction. As shown in Fig. 4, steel I-beams be-
tween the walls being necessary, upon which to build platforms
or roofs above, and upon which to hang pipes below, these same
beams were used to brace the walls against each other at the top.
An 8-in. concrete sub-floor being necessary for paving these sub-
ways it was found that this same floor would prevent sliding of
the walls at the bottom. The adoption of this plan cut the
thickness of these walls in two and saved many yards of con-
crete. The walls were designed as beams fixed at both ends,
and as the concrete was figured in tension, they were built in
monolithic sections, 30 to 60 ft. long, each section being laid
from bottom to top when once started. The sections are united
by mortise and tenon joints, which permit expansion yet pre-
vent leakage, although asphalt expansion joints were built every
2So ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ioo ft. in the north wall of the main subway. In order to trans-
mit the stress at the top of the walls to the I-beam struts, old
rails or cheaper bent rods i^ in. in diameter were used. These
branch subways were originally designed to carry pipes and
wires, but were afterwards increased in size to permit trucking
through them.
Sharp vertical corners were avoided at points where they
might interfere with trucking, and curves with radii from 10 to
50 ft. were used, particularly in the express subway where there
are many angles. By cantilevering out over the steel beams
at the top of this subway, however, straight corners were carried
Up in the brickwork of the express buildings.
Capstones of Missouri red granite, 18 in. thick, were used
under all train-shed and subway columns and on the walls where
it was necessary to distribute the bearing load. James Stewart
& Co. were the general contractors on the subways and express
buildings. All other buildings were erected by George A.
Fuller & Co. The subway masonry designs and general recon-
struction plans for all work were executed by the Terminal
Railroad Association, Mr. E. C. Dicke, chief draughtsman.
Structural Steel Work.
Large quantities of steel work were necessary to carry out
the various plans, which for purposes of description may be
divided into subway steel work, train-shed extension, coaling-
station structure, power house and signal bridges.
Subway Steel Work. — The general arrangement of the
main subway is shown in Figs. 3 and 5 . Thirty -two tracks are car-
ried on deck plate girders in 2 spans of 30 ft. and 1 of 42 ft. 2| in.
These' spans divide the subway into an express roadway, bag-
gage-wagon roadway and a baggage storage and working room,
to meet service conditions at this station. The girders rest
on the north and south walls and frame into two rows of cross
girders supported by columns spaced 35 ft. apart. A clearance
of 14 ft. is obtained for the two streets, and 12 ft. in the bag-
gage room. In order to deaden noise of trains operating over
the subway, each track is carried by rectangular trough floor-
ing resting on shelf angles riveted to stringers 8 ft. 2 in. apart.
This centering requires the use of a 7 -ft. tie, but admits a maxi-
mum amount of light to the subway from above. The troughs
are 7 in. deep, made of 5 X 3 X f angles riveted together with
9 X f in. horizontal plates, and were filled with hot asphalt-
gravel concrete sloping from both sides towards the center where
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 251
a 1 -in. nipple has been inserted draining into a copper gutter
below. All steel work in contact with gravel was painted with
red lead, and then swabbed with a heavy coat of hot asphalt
to prevent corrosion. A 6-in. bed of fine clean gravel was then
spread, and 12 in. of gravel ballast added.
The cross girders are very heavy, the 63 X \ in. webs
being made in one piece and reinforced at each end with 2
shear webs, 63 X f in., extending to the second stringer from
each column. The flanges are made up of 8 X 8 X f angles
and 18-in. cover plates, and the end stiffeners are four 6 X 6 X f
angles. As the location permits no transverse bracing inter-
fering with traffic below, small curved brackets were inserted
under the cross girders which not only reduce the lateral vibra-
tion but add to the appearance as well.
The platforms between tracks are carried by light steel
beams framed into the track stringers. Longitudinal expan-
sion is permitted by slotted holes where the stringers rest on
the north wall, and transverse expansion is provided for by
slotted holes at every fourth column. The assumed live load
on one trough is 20,000 uniformly distributed, while the stringers,
cross girders and columns are designed for the standard Terminal
174-ton engines, and 100 lbs. per sq. ft. on platforms.
Tracks are carried over the branch subways on continuous
rectangular troughs made up of 4 X 4 X J angles, 15 X f in.
horizontal and 20 X | in. vertical plates, which are likewise
filled with asphalt and gravel.
All material is open-hearth medium steel, except wrought-
iron field rivets. Cooper's specifications for 1901 were used in
design, and the specifications of the Western Pennsylvania lines
of 1897 followed for material and workmanship. The steel
work was designed and inspected by Brennecke and Fay, struc-
tural engineers, fabricated by the American Bridge Company,
and erected by the Massilon Bridge Company. A total of 2,890
tons was required.
The erection of this steel work was governed largely by
traffic conditions which permitted the use of only two tracks at
any one time. To fit in with the new track rearrangement,
erection had to begin on the center 8 tracks and was then suc-
cessively started on west and east outside tracks to make con-
nections with that center portion. The design required, first,
the erection of a cross girder on its columns and the longitudinal
stringers for two tracks with the adjacent platform between
them. The steel work was stored at Twenty-third Street, and
252 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
brought to the subway on flat cars, and as scarcity of track room
and heavy passenger business permitted the use of an addi-
tional unloading track only between the hours of 10 a.m. and 4
p.m., it was necessary to unload the cars within that time and
place the steel in the subway below, where it could be reached
by the erecting traveler.
The traveler moved from south to north on the trestle false
work, erecting the 3 longitudinal spans in order. Pneumatic field
riveting was used throughout, and as the steel was erected,
painters, trackmen and carpenters followed immediately, as
these two tracks and the platform serving them had to be
entirely completed, ready for service, before the traveler was
permitted to move to the next two tracks.
Train-Shed Extension. — In order to cover the main sub-
way and protect the increased length of the shed tracks, under the
new arrangement, it was decided to add to the old train shed an
extension on the south of 180 ft., as shown in Fig. 6. It was
deemed advisable to retain the same general outline and the
same span lengths on the extension as on the old shed. The
180 ft. were, therefore, divided into 30 -ft. spans for the exterior
rows, and two 30-ft. spans and two 60-ft. spans on the interior
rows of columns, fitting in with the subway column spacing.
The most southern 30-ft. span is designed as a tower to provide
against longitudinal wind thrust, while the lateral thrust is
taken up by the exterior columns which are designed .as vertical
girders. The 60-ft. spans are connected by longitudinal trusses
to carry alternate roof trusses, thus eliminating objectionable
and more expensive columns and making a thoroughly well-
braced structure.
Many changes were made from the old design details where
improvement was desirable. The roof trusses are of riveted
lattice type instead of the old patented pin-connected Pegram
trusses. The adoption of riveted upper chord members and
purlins, in preference to the old pin-connected, rod-trussed
similar pieces with their multiplicity of parts, large number of
small eye-bars, adjustable bent rods and quantity of boring for
pin holes, decreased the shop pound price 3^ per cent, and made
their erection less expensive and more rapid. Expansion is
provided for by slip joints at one end of the trusses instead of
roller bearings which corrode and fill up with dirt. The new
interior intermediate columns have fixed bases, as the column
length is sufficient to permit bending due to temperature move-
ments of the roof trusses without recourse to the old pin-
connected shoes.
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Fig. 6: Structural Details of Train-Sued Extension.
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TERMINAL RAILROAD ASSOCIATION or ST LOUIS
SECTION
POWER HOUSE
ST. LOUIS, MO.
NO NY 9253
Fig. 9. Section through Power House, St. Louis.
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST.. LOUIS UNION STATION. 253
The three 140-ft. spans were erected by means of framed
timber travelers, supported by towers resting on platforms,
between tracks, as shown in Fig. 7, while the 90-ft. end spans
were framed on the ground and raised into position by a derrick
car, which was also used to set the columns. No obstruction
being permissible, the traveler bents cleared train movements,
and head room was allowed in bracing over platforms to permit
trucking. The 1,080 tons of steel work were brought in from
the storage yard on flat cars at convenient times between trains
and raised to the traveler platforms by boom derricks on top
of them operated by steam hoists located on the track platforms
below. Mr. J. C. Bland, consulting engineer, designed this
work, which was made by the American Bridge Company and
erected by the Massilon Bridge Company.
Coaling Station. — The coaling station sectionally shown
in Fig. 8, located at Fifteenth Street, is a heavy box frame-
work, 36 ft. wide by 115 ft. long, rising above ground
10 1 ft. and extending below the surface at the north end a dis-
tance of 20 ft. It is well braced against wind pressure in all
directions, and designed to support the loads in the 1,000-ton
coal-storage bin, the four water tanks 40 ft. long and 78 in. in
diameter located in the angle formed by the sloping sides of
this coal-bin, the two 75 cu. yd. cinder bins, two 125 cu. yd.
green sand bins, two 30 cu. yd. dry sand bins, and the operating
machinery. The coal and cinder bins are lined with concrete
to make them fireproof, and inflammable material is eliminated
throughout, the sides and roof of the building being covered
with corrugated iron.
The lack of ground in this vicinity just west of the engine
houses makes it necessary at this time to switch the Seventeenth
Street coach yard over two of its tracks. This leaves four
tracks free for the cleaning, coaling, sanding and watering of
engines, or a capacity of about 20 engines an hour. Machinery
totaling 180 h. p. is used for crushing, elevating and conveying
coal, and for conveying and elevating cinders and sand. The
entire station, with cinder pits, occupies only 12,860 sq. ft. of
ground, and 425 tons of steel were used in its construction. The
design is by Purdy & Henderson and the Link Belt Machinery
Company.
Power House. — The power house shown in Fig. 9 at
this station being a source of energy indispensable to traffic
movement, it was deemed essential to build a fireproof struc-
ture. The house is 146 X 99 ft., built of brick, and has steel
254 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
roof trusses, a steel runway for a traveling crane in the engine
room, and steel framing for boilers and the 500-ton coal bunkers
in the furnace room.
Signal Bridges. — In order to locate signals in their proper
places over the complicated track work, and minimize liability
to accident through mistake in choosing the proper guiding
indication, signal bridges were built so that each signal could be
located over the right-hand rail of the track governed by it.
Twenty -one bridges were thus required, varying in length from
28 to 250 ft., with a total length of 2,045 ft- or nearly two fifths of
a mile, and weighing 313 tons. All bridges rest on two bents,
except the rectangular bridges, seen in Fig. 10, in front of the
interlocking tower, where four posts were used to prevent ob-
struction of view to leverman in the tower, and the two long
bridges supporting the starting signals, just south of the train
shed, which are upheld by three bents. Trusses are canti-
levered out over the supports where locations would not per-
mit end bents. The trusses are of the double-lattice, riveted
type, dimensioned according to span length, while the bents have
footings spread to give them stability. The essential features
of design are that all bracing, both on the trusses and bents, is
turned inward to avoid projections and improve the appearance;
the truss chords are made of two angles and a plate, leaving no
inaccessible places for corrosion from engine smoke or weather;
and curved brackets are added to increase stiffness of truss
connections to bents. Signals rest on top of all bridges except
the starting bridges, where the signals had to be suspended in
order to be seen inside the train shed, and are fastened to the
top chords by means of connection angles. Wooden platforms
are built on top of each bridge, reached by a ladder fastened to
one bent, and have a light gas-pipe railing all around. These
bridges were made by Stupp Brothers, Bridge and Iron Company,
though designed by the Terminal Association, and erected jointly.
Buildings.
The entire group of new buildings in the vicinity of the
station are of substantial construction.
The express buildings, seen in Fig. 10, are designed about
60 ft. wide to handle the business received at one side of the
house and delivered at the other. The first floor is laid 4 ft.
above top of rail on the east side to permit direct trucking into
cars, and the roadway on the west side was built 3 ft. below
this level to permit ready unloading from wagon beds. Electric
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TERMINAL R. R. ASSN.
GENERAL PLAN
COALING STATION and ENGINE HOUSES
FOURTEENTH ST. ST. L OU/S.
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Fig ii. General Plan of Facilities for Handling Locomotives in Connection with Union Station.
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 255
freight elevators 6 X 16 ft. connect this floor to the base-
ment at subway floor level. All the buildings have two floors,
and the Pacific Company has three, upon which are located the
general offices and storerooms. The total floor space in the
5 buildings is 152,900 sq. ft. Electric passenger elevators are
run between all floors. The timber construction in these build-
ings as well as in the mail building, is of the heavy, slow com-
bustion warehouse type, as designed by Eames & Young,
architects. The trucking floors are covered with f in. maple,
while the 11 -ft. exposed platforms on the west side are finished
with I in. oak, although glass awnings are built above them.
The Adams building was erected, complete, in 90 days.
The mail building erected is a structure with three stories
and basement, adapted to the needs of United States Post Office
Department. The west end is fitted up as offices and working
rooms of the Railway Mail Service Department, while the main
transfer service use the rest for distributing rooms. This building
is connected with the city post office, over a mile away, by two
8-in. lines of pneumatic tubes, which carry 15,000 to 20,000 lbs.
of mail daily in carriers holding about 500 letters each. Second-
class mail is received from wagons in the basement, raised on
elevators to the various floors and redelivered below by chute
to trucks, which carry it up the south line of subway elevators
to cars on the shed tracks. Use of these pneumatic tubes and
the subway trucking service permits transmission from the city
office to within six minutes of leaving time for trains from the
station.
The power house, of Fig. 9, is divided by a longitudinal
center wall into engine and boiler rooms. A basement under
the engine rooms provides space for hydraulic pumps and steam
piping, while a similar arrangement under the boiler room per-
mits the use of mechanical cinder-handling machinery, and
contains the pumps and heaters. Independent of the power
house is built a 200-ft. stack of Alphons Custodis radial brick,
11 ft. inside diameter at the top. An adjacent house also con-
tains tanks and cooling coils for compressed air service. This
house, 37 X 20 ft., has its sides covered by galvanized iron
louvers to permit circulating air to reach the cooling coils, and
an air intake stack is constructed with a dust pan below, through
which air is furnished the compressors in the power house.
The three engine houses located between Twelfth and Four-
teenth streets, as shown in general track plan of Fig. 11, are
rectangular in shape and are served by transfer tables. The
256 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
limited space made such unusual design necessary, as round-
houses of sufficient capacity to serve the same number of engines
through turn-tables would have required 30 per cent, more of
valuable space, which was also not available. The use of two
transfer tables on each pit between the houses, and direct con-
nections to all tracks in the end houses, make engine move-
ments exceptionally rapid and positive. The transfer tables are
75 ft. long, running on 5 rails in the pit at a speed of 125 ft. per
minute when loaded with 150 tons, and 300 ft. per minute when
light, and are operated by 35 h. p. A. C. motors. The three
engine houses are 154 ft. wide and accommodate 61 locomotives.
Washout pits served with water and air are located under the
tracks, and a small shop is installed in the center house for
light repair work. The roof trusses in these houses are very
light, of Howe type, and, being located between tracks where
transverse movement is unnecessary, they were built very low,
which considerably cheapened the cost of the buildings. For
the use of engine men a two-story service building was erected
northwest of the engine houses. This is equipped with first-
class toilet, locker and bunk rooms for their accommodation.
On the first floor also a storeroom and a fire-proof oil room have
been built.
Flooring and Roofing.
In order to facilitate trucking over the subway system, the
basement floors of all buildings were built at the same level as
the branch subways ' connecting with them, as shown in Fig. 3.
The main subway is divided into two roadways, and a baggage
working room, raised 2 ft. 3 in. above them, to facilitate the
unloading of trunks from wagons backing against its protecting
curb. An 8-in. granite curb is used in the south roadway to
separate trucks from wagons handling mail and express matter.
Concrete sub -floors laid on cinders were built in the subways
and buildings, covering an area of 157,000 sq. ft.; and a wearing
surface of granitoid 3 in. thick was placed on top where light
service was expected, and asphalt was used where exposed to
trucks and wagons. Asphalt mastic f in. to ij in. thick was
used under the express buildings, the branch subways and the
baggage working room, while asphalt concrete of 1^ in. binder
course and i\ in. wearing surface was applied on the main sub-
way driveways. Although the main subway is covered by the
train shed, snow and rain blowing in from the south end, or
through the louvers above, and leakage from locomotives, had
to be provided against. Ruberoid composition paper was
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 257
therefore laid between two layers of platforming, and the glass-
work in place was made water-tight. The branch subways are
covered by 1:2:5 cinder steel concrete, with wooden venti-
lators at every third panel between I-beams, both being roofed
with 5 -ply composition and gravel.
The train-shed extension is sheathed with if -in. tongued
and grooved yellow pine, and covered with 1,050 squares of
Carey's magnesia felt roofing. This roofing is guaranteed for
10 years, and is much cheaper both in first cost and maintenance
than the old tin roof eaten away by sulphur fumes from the
smoke below. Ordinary slate roof is laid on most of the build-
ings. On the power house, however, book tile covered with
cinder concrete was used as a fire protection, instead of wooden
sheathing. The flat roofs of the engine houses are covered with
5 -ply composition and gravel.
Track Work and Interlocking.
In order to increase freedom of train movement through
the Union Station yards, it was decided from the first that a
radical rearrangement of the old track system would be neces-
sary. The two main tracks were increased to seven, and the
one four-track throat into the trainshed was widened into two
groups of three tracks each, thus diminishing the ratio of shed
tracks per lead from 8 to 5^, as shown in Fig. 1. Freight was
separated from passenger, and both from engine and switching
movement, thus largely increasing the range of simultaneous
parallel movements. The train-shed capacity was increased
from 225 to 330 coaches, by lengthening all tracks to uniformly
hold eleven coaches instead of an average of seven, and a mini-
mum of four. This permits spotting trains on any track, and
was accomplished by using 15 per cent, of the old shed area
wasted in the old design, and extending the tracks across the
main subway, without increasing the lead curvature above 14
degrees. Switching connections and alternate routes in case
of derailment at any point are obtained by the use of many
double slips and cross-overs. No. 7 frogs were the lightest
which could be fitted within the limiting territory, and for cross-
overs on the shed leads curved frogs were designed to prevent
extreme curvature. Rail for curves over 10 degrees was curved
in the shop.
All inbound trains are backed into the station, so that by
handling the train as a unit, switching movements to turn
engines or replace the various cars in their proper order for
258 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
out-bound trains, are eliminated. This also places the baggage,
mail and express cars so that they can be reached by trucks
without interfering with passengers, and so that they can be
switched out promptly with the road engine without waiting
to remove the passenger coaches, which are often allowed to
remain in the shed for several hours before they can be removed
to the yards for cleaning and storage.
Twenty-two hundred tons of ioo-lb. rail have been laid
within the Union Station interlocking limits. The tracks
under the train shed total 6.84 miles, while the entire mileage
devoted to passenger traffic, including storage yards, with an
increased capacity from 275 to 650 eighty -foot coaches, has been
increased over 100 per cent, from 19 to 39.3 miles, covering
73 acres of ground.
This new system was built without greatly interfering
with the constant traffic on the old tracks, although much of
the new work was laid almost under the wheels of moving
trains. Before the destruction of the old express buildings, the
new western leads had been built and gradually put into service
as the tracks were laid in their new positions across the subway,
by making temporary connections to the old tracks, and, as the
various obstructions were removed, the new track work was
pushed forward, connected up for use of traffic, and finally
took the place of the old mains and leads.
A new interlocking system was necessary for such a radical
rearrangement as was made, and as the old plant was gradually
cut off piece by piece, the new was extended and used for traffic.
Both the old and new systems were electro-pneumatically oper-
ated by the Union Switch and Signal Company system, but until
the new machines were finally connected up, the new switches
were thrown by compressed air through valves operated by
hand keys, moved by switch tenders on the ground. The
machine in central tower No. 1 has 215 levers, of which 181
levers operate 48 double slips, 65 switches and 194 signals, and
is the largest in the world. The work done by such a machine
controlling 1,827 possible routes, is evidenced by the fact that
it is the equivalent to 800 mechanical levers, and that 3 lever-
men took the place of 5 1 switchmen when the plant was thrown
into service, at which time there was a daily movement of over
400 trains.
The large machine is divided into sections corresponding
to certain track connections, and so arranged that the lever-
men need not pass [each other as they work. In placing these
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 259
machines in service, the expert operators had so familiarized
themselves with the new plant that no trouble was encoun-
tered in any way. All fouling track sections are circuited
with controlling signals, while track indicators in tower No. 1,
and indicating signals on the throat signal bridges, show the
presence of any train on trairi-shed tracks. Repeating signals
are used where sight is interrupted, and distant signals permit
rapid train movement. Electro-pneumatic air whistles, which
can be operated from the towers, are also used to expedite train
movements by calling the attention of train crews to signal
indications. Pushbuttons are installed on the shed platforms,
so that conductors can signal the train director when they are
ready to start. Fig. 12 shows the track arrangement as inter-
locked. The signals have 90 degrees travel and are electrically
lighted with 20-watt, no-volt lamps.
Power Generation and Transmission.
The power house was built on ground not adapted for other
purposes, and in a position located centrally as regards distri-
bution. Power is furnished for electric lighting, elevator oper-
ation, coal-handling machinery, interlocking plants, building
and car heating and car cleaning. Traffic conditions impera-
tively require that this power house be in constant service every
minute of the day and night. With this in view, duplication
of all essential generating units is absolutely necessary; and
the equipment design made such provision. The capacity of
the old plant was doubled and 2,750 h. p. can be generated in
the 10 water-tube boilers furnishing steam at 250 lbs. pressure.
Automatic stokers are fed from the overhead coal bunkers, to
which coal can be furnished through a coal crusher having a
capacity of 30 tons per hour, if the coal received is not already
crushed. In the engine room are four 350 kw. 2 ph., 1,100 v.,
7,200 alt., a. c. generators direct connected to vertical cross-
compound,, marine-type engines, which furnish all electricity
for power and lighting. Duplicate 62 kw., 125 v., d. c. excitors
connected direct to compound single-acting engines furnish
excitation to the larger units. Two 200 kw. rotary convert-
ers transform the a. c. to 520 v., d. c. for elevator service.
Two air compressors, with a capacity of 2,180 cu. ft. of free air
per minute to 100 lbs. pressure, furnish power to interlocking
system and for car service.
The switchboard of 31 panels controls all electrical output.
Three hydraulic elevator pumps, delivering 120 gals, of oil per
26o ASSOCIATION OF ENGLNEERING SOCIETIES.
minute against a difference in pressure of 750 lbs., are located in
the basement. In the pump pit are located the usual comple-
ment of pumps and heaters. The engines are non-condensing,
due to economical use of exhaust steam for heating the adjacent
buildings and headhouse during seven months in the year, and
large pipes, with proper returns, are run through the subways
to reach the various structures. High-pressure steam is required
for car heating; and air, steam and water are piped throughout
the various coach yards. Electric transmission is through lead-
covered cables placed in tile duct laid in the subway, and by
rubber-covered cable on poles through the yards. Alternating
current is transmitted at 1,100 v., and converted through trans-
formers at various points to furnish power to 50 odd motors.
Lighting.
The main subway is lighted from the surface during the
day through platform glasswork £ in. and f in. thick made by
Dauchy Iron Works, while the branch subways are lighted by
skylights above them. During the night the main subway is
electrically lighted by 70 two-glower 100 c. p. Nernst lamps,
operated at 220 v. on a 3-wire a. c. system. The branch subways
are lighted by 2 -cluster incandescent lamps hung from the roof.
The train shed in daytime receives light through its verti-
cal glass curtains hung at both ends, and from the longitudinal
and transverse glass lanterns on its roof. The total glass area
in the entire shed, including the midway roof, is 125,000 sq. ft.
At night the shed is lighted by rows of multiple a. c. arc lamps
on 3-wire system, suspended over the platforms.
The yards are illuminated by series arc lamps supported
on poles, while both arc and incandescent lamps are used in the
buildings. Westinghouse. Church, Kerr & Co. installed the
complete power plant.
Fittings and Appurtenances.
Elevators are used in the main subway to carry
mail, baggage and express trucks to the platforms above,
as shown in Fig. 3. As these elevators are operated by the
inexperienced truckmen, some simple style of mechanism was
essential, and as there was no space within the steel work or on
the floor which could be spared for operating machinery, a
direct lift type of hydraulic elevators was adopted, using oil as
a transmitting medium. The platforms are 5 ft. X 19 ft.,
and while they occupy half the width of the baggage platforms
at track level, there is still room for a truck to pass on the other
side. There are two elevators for each pair of tracks, and where-
RECONSTRUCTION AT ST. LOUIS UNION STATION. 261
ever feasible these two elevators were placed along side the
same track in order to minimize possibility of accidents which
might occur to passengers leaning from moving trains. The
elevators can be operated from below or above, but, if desired,
they can be locked at the platform level so that they cannot be
operated from the subway.
The three operating pumps are located in the power house
and a duplicate system of main-pipe lines runs up to the main
subway, where it connects to a closed circuit embracing each
elevator, so that in case of accident to the piping at any point,
service can be given from another direction. These pumps are
automatically controlled by governors connected to two weighted
accumulators, which start and stop the pumps as the service
varies. The working pressure is 600 lbs., while a back-pressure
of 40 lbs. for balancing the weight of the elevator platforms is
obtained by connection of the suction pipes to a tank on the
train-shed roof. A reserve tank of 14,000 gal. capacity is con-
nected to the pipes at their lowest points in order to drain the
system in case of leakage or accident. There are 35 of these
elevators in the subway and 2 in the mail building, with a
rated capacity of 4,000 lbs. and 2,500 lbs. for a speed of 150 ft.
per minute.
There are 10 two-ton freight, 6 ft. X 16 ft., and 6 one-ton
passenger elevators, 5 ft. X 5.5 ft., in the 5 express buildings,
2 in the mail building and 3 in the headhouse. All electric
elevators are operated by motors of multipolar type, compound
wound, receiving d. c. of 500 or 230 v., and were furnished by
the Louisville Elevator Company.
Conclusion.
Numerous conveniences such as the telautograph system
between interlocking tower and station, a pneumatic tube sys-
tem for transmission of baggage checks from subway to baggage
rooms, scales for weighing of baggage, etc., were installed for
the betterment of service in the various departments, but they
cannot be detailed here. Changes were made at the station
headhouse, in the midway and at various other places where
conditions required it, but at this time only such points are
mentioned as seem to have some unusual or special feature in
their design, application or construction. The endeavor has
been to refrain from being drawn too much into detail which
would interest only the specialist in his own class of work, and
to present rather a description of the adaptation of various
materials to the work in hand.
262 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ALUMINOTHERMICS.
By E. Stuetz.
[Summary of a Lecture before the Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland ,
February 14, 1905.]
The term aluminothermics is now recognized as the name
of the science which utilizes the reducing qualities of aluminium
in the arts.
It is essentially a new discovery, as the metal itself can
only be said to have been discovered in 1827.
Its reducing qualities were only recognized to their fullest
extent, and put to useful purposes, by Dr. Goldschmidt, who
discovered that suitably prepared metallic oxides, when mixed
with finely divided aluminium, would undergo self -combustion
once the reaction was made to start in one place, and that this
reaction would communicate itself, without supply of heat or
power from outside, to all surrounding particles. The heat
produced through the reaction of aluminium on the oxygen is
about equal to that of the electric arc. One of its most promi-
nent characteristics is that the time necessary to complete a
reaction is practically independent from the quantity of the
mass undergoing it. Fifty lbs. and 500 lbs. will burn down in
practically the same time — about 20 seconds.
The chemical reaction takes place in a crucible. The ther-
mit, a grayish-black powder, is ignited by putting a fusee into
a small pinch of ignition mixture (peroxide of barium). By
this reaction the oxygen is made to combine with the aluminum
at a temperature of about 3ooo°C, leaving a very pure iron at
the bottom of the crucible, covered by a lighter but bulkier layer
of slag, — aluminium oxide, or so-called corundum.
The process has two main divisions as far as its application
is concerned. The first concerns the metallurgist, the second
the engineer.
To the first division belongs the production of pure metals
free from carbon, such as chromium and manganese, molyb-
denum and ferro-vanadium. For ferro-titanium a very impor-
tant and special application has been worked out for foundry
work. Some of these metals are in extensive use in steel works
in the United States of America.
The second division may be briefly summarized in the word
" welding." The most extensive use of the welding process is
ALUMINOTHERMICS.
263
in connection with the continuous rail for trolley lines. Since
the manufacture of thermit was started in the United States in
July of last year, some fifteen towns have put down trial tracks,
and are now watching the effect of the cold weather on these
joints.
Crucible and Mold,
Which must always have a gate, so that the thermit steel does not impinge directly on the part to
be welded. The crucible sitting in a ring supported by a tripod is tapped by driving up the pin
and washers with which it is closed or " plugged."
The main recommendations for this process are, cheapness
of equipment, simplicity of execution and effectiveness of work.
The equipment consists only of refractory earthenware or sand
mold and magnesia-lined crucible. Both molds and crucibles
the trolley lines can make in their own shops without skilled
labor. The weld is made by fitting the mold carefully round
the joint and luting the contact lines with clay so that no liquid
iron may escape, and placing the crucible exactly over the runner
of the mold. The thermit is then ignited, and when the reac-
tion by which the pure iron is separated out is complete, the
crucible is tapped from the bottom. The liquid iron of a tem-
perature of nearly twice that of ordinary liquid steel dissolves
the rail ends, and welds itself with them into one homogeneous
mass. The welding is automatic, no skilled experience being
necessary to observe the moment when welding heat is reached.
Sufficient thermit iron is run to form a shoe round the welded
joint, which has thus a strength much beyond that of the rail
itself, as has been proved by numerous official tests.
The electric conductivity of the rail is perfect. Great
lengths of third rails have been connected by welding a short
iron bridge on one side between the feet across the joint.
The principles described for welding trolley rails are equally
264 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
applicable to welding any other massive iron or steel pieces, in
all kinds of industrial plants. One of the most effective jobs
done in this connection was welding the fractured stern post of
the Hamburg -American liner Sevilla, 9,000 tons. About 7
cwt. of thermit were used, the steamer was laid up for only a
few days, and she has made several trips to and from Europe to
Argentine.
Broken locomotive frames are now welded by thermit with-
out dismantling the engine. It has been found that quite effect-
ive welds have been made without taking the engine out of
commission more than fifteen hours.
Iron pipes can also be welded. As, however, the heat of
the thermit iron would burn through any thin-walled iron object,
the process here is reversed. The slag, aluminium oxide, is
impervious to liquid iron, and coats with a thin layer any solid
object it touches. The slag is therefore poured into a mold
round the pipe joint and surrounds the iron as the white of an
egg does the yolk. The weld is here entirely due to the heat and
the pressure of a suitable set of clamps. The operation can take
place anywhere, in situ, and there is no wear and tear of pack-
ing to make good.
A separate application is that by which titanium, a most
valuable purifying addition to iron and steel, is introduced into
these metals while still in liquid state, fresh from the furnace.
The titanium is introduced as titan thermit into the ladle by
holding it in a can at the end of a shank below the surface of the
bath. The result is greater fluidity, an automatic poling action,
denser grain, and increased tensile strength.
Special thermits are also introduced into heavy steel ingots
to prevent the tremendous waste from piping, and further into
the molds of castings just inside the risers, by which iron which
was on the point of getting plastic is revived.
The examples given above are only a few instances of the
usefulness of aluminothermics.
The lecture was illustrated by numerous experiments, among
which was the burning of a hole through a f-in. steel plate in
about 10 seconds, welding this hole by thermit, and the welding
of a full-sized girder rail.
Mold for Welding Stern Post.
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 265
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS FOR
ELECTRIC WIRES
By D. A. Harrington, Member of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers.
[Read before the Society, February 15, 1905.]
It is my privilege to speak to you this evening on a subject
which, though probably more or less familiar to most of you,
is a very modern branch of engineering.
If one could have looked beneath the pavements of our
cities only twenty years ago, there would have been found
among the network of water and gas pipes and sewers, only an
occasional modest sample of electric conduit.
But during its short life this infant has been nurtured by
many trained minds and fed with millions of dollars of capital,
and under these inspiring influences it has grown and flourished
to a remarkable degree.
We may now find the conduit for electric wires elbowing
its way among its companions beneath the pavements in every
part of our cities, and making great strides of ten, twenty and
fifty miles from one city to another, so that to-day it claims a
place in the front rank of distributing mediums in point of
scope, utility and commercial importance.
About fifty years ago it was proposed to lay a line of under-
ground wires from New York to Baltimore. The work was
commenced, but was not successful, and a pole line was con-
structed instead.
Soon after, on one of the railroads in this state, a car was
equipped with a plow projecting at one side, at the front end,
to open up a furrow parallel with the tracks ; a reel of wire was
placed on the car with apparatus for feeding the wire into the
furrow, and at the rear end of the car was fastened an imple-
ment for throwing the dirt into the furrow, covering the wire.
Thus, while the train was in motion, the trench was dug, the
wire laid and the trench refilled all at one process.
This would rather seem to put to shame our present method
if the work had been permanent, but, unfortunately, this was
not the case.
Practical underground conduits were first constructed in
this country about twenty-five years ago, and since that time
the growth has been steady and very rapid. All of our large
266 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
cities are now practically honeycombed with pipes for electric
wires, and at the present time it would seem impossible to do
business without them.
In Boston to-day there are about 1,900,000 ft. of conduit,
made up of about 8,800,000 ft. of duct. In the ducts are about
10,300,000 ft. of cable, containing from 1 to 800 wires each,
giving a total of about 500,000,000 ft., or 100,000 miles of wire.
There are about 6,000 manholes and 12,000 service con-
nections from the conduit systems to buildings and poles.
There are two main divisions of conduit systems, the
solid systems and the drawing-in systems.
A solid system is one in which the wires or conductors
are laid in some insulating compound in pipes or boxes, the
joints made and the work completed while the trenches are open.
This system has been extensively used for electric light and
power, and to some extent for telephone and telegraph purposes.
It has especial advantages of flexibility in construction, as it
can be laid with bends, curves and square corners as well as
straight lines. The varying lines of the highways and byways
can be easily followed and obstructions in the streets avoided,
while at the same time it can be laid comparatively near the
surface of the street. This system is especially adapted for
local distribution.
The disadvantages of this system are, first, that in many
cases the original economy of construction is curtailed by the
excessive number of wires placed to provide for possible future
necessities, and, second, that in case of the failure of any con-
ductor on account of mechanical or electrical injury, the con-
duit must be uncovered and the insulation removed in order
to make repairs, and in case of additional wires being required,
practically the entire process of construction must be repeated
in order to install such wires.
A drawing-in system is that in which manholes are built
at convenient distances, trenches are opened between, and
pipes are laid connecting one manhole with another; the trenches,
are then refilled, the surface of the ground restored, and at any
convenient time the cables are drawn in and out of the ducts
between the manholes and connected as desired.
The principal advantage and economy of this system is
that only such cables as are needed are drawn in at first, and
additions, changes and repairs can be made as required without
disturbing the surface of the ground.
This is a very important advantage because of the liability
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 267
of defects developing in the conductors from various causes;
because of the frequent calls from customers for different or
additional service and because of the rapid improvement in
manufacturing the conductors and operating the system; all of
which conditions make it a distinct advantage and economy
to be able to conveniently repair, change or install conductors
at any time of the year.
Many different materials have been used in the construc-
tion of drawing-in systems, the most popular being wood, cast-
iron, wrought iron, cement and clay.
Wood, when used in the construction of conduits, is gen-
erally treated for preservation by kyanizing, vulcanizing or
creosoting; it has been used both in its natural state and as a
pulp in the construction of single and multiple ducts. Multiple
ducts were first used, but of late years the single duct is most
used.
In making multiple duct wood conduits it has been cus-
tomary to use 2-in. plank for the outside walls and inch boards
for the interior partitions, these parts being framed and nailed
together in 16 ft. lengths; the sections are placed in the trench
to line and grade, and the joints are wrapped with tar paper
smeared with pitch and secured by nailing on cleats of inch
boards; the whole is then further strengthened and protected
by spiking 2-in. planks on top, so laid as to break joints with
the sections of conduit. This makes a very firm, strong .con-
duit, but its rigidity is an objection to its use in congested city
streets on account of the difficulty of making curves and bends
to avoid obstructions.
Single wood ducts have been made by boring a 3 -in. hole
lengthwise through a stick of spruce 4 J in. square; they are
furnished in 8 -ft. lengths with a few short lengths for con-
venience in use; each piece is fitted with tapered socket joints
and the finished lengths are treated with creosote.
In building a conduit of this material the lengths are
driven together in the trench in the number and grouping
desired and a covering plank is laid on for protection.
A conduit of single wood ducts protected simply by a
covering plank can probably be laid more rapidly and at less
cost than one of any other material used, and it has been quite
popular in suburban districts where a few ducts are needed
and the development of business is not sufficiently advanced
to enable the determination of the location and extent of per-
manent requirements.
268 'ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Wood pulp has been used quite successfully in the manu-
facture of pipes for carrying wires, made up in lengths of about
6 ft., with smooth sleeve joints or screw couplings; it is claimed
to be water- and acid-proof and an insulator electrically. The
price charged for this pipe has been until lately so high when
compared with other material as to practically prohibit its use
in general underground conduit work, but it is now sold at a
figure which compares quite favorably with other pipe and is
being used quite extensively; the smaller sizes of pipe, from
i to 2 in. diameter, have been quite generally used for carrying
wires in the concrete floors and walls of power stations and
other buildings.
A few years ago an underground system was designed in
which the conduits and manholes were made of cast iron laid
up in sections, with special fittings for making connections to
buildings, poles and lamps. This system had many good
points in design, but the lines on which it could be laid were
too rigid for convenient street construction and the material was.
comparatively fragile. Conduits of this material were installed
in two or three cities ; it did not become popular, however, and
has not been used to any extent during the past ten years.
Wrought-iron pipe of heavy and standard weight, and the
lighter well casing and boiler tubing have been used to a very
large extent and by men of all degrees as receptacles for under-
ground electric wires; there have been special machines made
for bending the pipe on the work and special couplings for
connecting bent pipe; with these accessories a wrought-iron
pipe can be made into a very serviceable duct for wires along
a crooked path, and as such has been very popular with en-
gineers and contractors when considering the problem of building
a conduit over, under or around perplexing obstacles.
In the early days of conduit work, iron pipe was quite
generally used even for the larger conduits, but of late years,
the comparatively high cost of the pipe with proper protection,
and the fact that from an electrical standpoint an iron pipe is.
not a satisfactory receptacle for wires, have limited its use to
small lines or connections to buildings, poles, etc.
Cement-lined pipe consists of a cylindrical jacket of sheet
iron with a lining of cement and iron socket joints; it has been
made in 8-ft. lengths, can be laid very rapidly and when properly
covered with and separated by concrete, makes a very strong
and satisfactory conduit. It has been used very extensively;
the writer has supervised the laying of 2,000,000 ft. in one city
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 269
in a single season. While the cement-lined pipe is not as flexi-
ble for use in conduit building as wrought-iron pipe, a very
satisfactory curve can be made by cutting the pipe into short
lengths and making a slight bend at each joint, and the round
shape gives it a distinct advantage over the square duct in that
by properly manipulating the round pipe in the concrete ma-
trix, the grouping of ducts and shape of the conduit can be
changed without breaking the continuity of the ducts. This
is a great convenience at times in avoiding obstacles.
Vitrified clay conduits are made in single and multiple
ducts. The single duct consists of clay pipe J to f of an inch
thick, with a 3-in. bore, and is made up in 18-in. lengths; it
is made with socket joints or plain square ends.
In laying a conduit of this material, a concrete bed is
prepared in the trench, and on this the sections of conduit are
laid in the grouping desired, care being taken to have the sec-
tions in accurate line with each other and so arranged as to
thoroughly break joints horizontally and vertically; each
course of ducts is bedded in a thin layer of cement mortar.
The grouping of ducts is then covered on the sides and top
with a layer of concrete. A covering of plank is generally
laid on the top concrete to protect the conduit from mechanical
injury.
Multiple-duct vitrified clay conduits are made, containing
either 2 ducts, 3 ducts, 4, 6 or 9 ducts; the sides of the con-
duit and partitions are made from \ in. to f in. thick; the
ducts are either square or round and from 2 in. to 4 J in. inside
measurements.
These multiple ducts are made in sections from 2 ft. to 6 ft.
long, held in line by iron dowel pins, and are laid with or with-
out a concrete envelope as the conditions require; in either case,
however, the joints at least are wrapped with cloth, paper or
burlap and covered with pitch or cement mortar. It is ad-
visable to place a covering plank on this and all conduits laid
in public streets.
Vitrified clay conduits in the single and multiple forms
have been used more extensively during the past three or four
years than those of any other material.
The principal feature in favor of this material is its cheap-
ness, but it has good points in which it equals more expensive
materials and excels cheaper kinds, with the result that it has
become very popular among those who have been buying con-
duit materials in large quantities.
270 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Some of the good mechanical points of the duct made of
vitrified clay are that it has a smooth inside surface, is probably
permanent, is an insulator, and, if properly laid, is reasonably
water and gas tight.
The objections to it are, the lack of proper joints and the
short length of the sections, which increases the number of poor
joints; its weight also is a factor of considerable extra expense
in freight, teaming and handling.
There have been several attempts made to manufacture
a glass pipe for use in underground conduits, and some excellent
samples have been produced, but it has not been put to any
general practical use.
Of late years there has been a demand for large quantities
of pipe or duct at a very cheap price, and the result has been
the production of ducts which, while good considering the
price, are still far short of perfection.
The cost of the pipe or duct is generally only 10 or 15 per
cent, of the cost of the finished conduit, so that an increase
or decrease of even 50 per cent, in the cost of the duct would
mean only a change of 5 per cent, in the total cost of the conduit.
The fact that the duct is usually purchased in large quan-
tities (a single order often being placed for all the duct for a
season's work) gives an undue prominence to a small per foot
saving, and while the resulting percentage of saving on the whole
conduit is very small, the defect in the duct, which is the vital
part of the conduit, is a defect in the same degree to the whole
conduit.
In laying the ducts now generally furnished, we are depend-
ent for good results on the skill, accuracy and faithfulness of
the man who does the actual work of placing the ducts in
position, and, as the ducts when laid are of necessity covered
so as to be out of sight almost immediately, there is a liability
that poorly matched pieces, or pieces that have slipped out of
position on the fresh mortar, will be covered up; this has fre-
quently happened in practice and has incurred an ultimate
extra expense in operating the conduit far in excess of the extra
cost of a duct of better design and construction.
In the interest of good conduits it is desirable and probable
that there will be a popular demand for ducts so designed that
they can be easily placed and maintained in correct position in
relation to each other.
The laying out of a conduit system is somewhat similar
to the laying out of a system for distributing gas or water.
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 271
The location of the central station and the area to be sup-
plied having been determined, the nature and extent of the
business throughout the district can be profitably investigated
in considerable detail, and an estimate made of the probable
growth of business in the different sections in a given time.
Having thus estimated the amount and character of the
electrical service which will probably be required in each por-
tion of the district, it can be successively determined, first,
what wires and cables are necessary, and then the size and
location of conduits required to contain such cables.
In each of the above estimates, and especially in the matter
of conduits, it has been found by experience to be advisable to
leave a substantial margin for unforeseen contingencies.
Underground conduits may be used for the wires of electric
railways, telegraph companies, telephone companies or electric
light and power companies, and, while the same general style
of conduit is adapted to the use of either, the requirements in
details of distribution are quite different, and the nature of
the service required must often be considered in locating the
conduit and determining the number, location and size of
manholes.
The layout of a distributing system for the feed wires of an
electric railway is such as will provide a direct and convenient
route for cables from the power station to certain fixed feed
points on the line of the railway; no provision need be made
for intermediate distribution and the manholes are required
only to be built of such a size and placed at such intervals as to
provide for the convenient and proper handling of the cables.
A distributing system for telegraph wires is required prin-
cipally to provide for trunk lines in and out of the cities, but
the occasional lines run to private offices and the wires for
messenger calls make it necessary to provide for reaching all
important buildings, and for this purpose the conduit should
be so located as to be accessible at practically all points in the
business district, and the manholes should be so located as to
conveniently connect from them to the required buildings.
The underground distributing system for the wires of a
telephone company must provide for trunk lines in various
directions, and also for connecting to individual buildings in
all parts of the district ; the problem in this case is considerably
simplified by the fact that because the service required is all
of the same character and the amount of current used is so very
small, many wires for all the service in a locality may be bunched
272 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
together in a small space and carried through or along the sides
of buildings without danger to persons or property or detriment
to the service.
In designing a conduit system to properly accommodate
the wires used to distribute the current from an electric light and
power station, the conditions to be considered are much more
complicated than those mentioned above. The conduits should
be such as will properly contain and protect cables carrying
currents of from 200 to 20,000 volts, and the manholes so equipped
as to provide means of protecting the cables of various voltages
from each other, and of such size and shape as to allow for the
safe and proper handling of the cables and space for installing
such junction boxes, transformers, etc., as may be required.
The local distribution of electric light and power wires is
a matter on which engineers, electricians and municipal and
insurance officials have many opinions; it is a subject which
should certainly be handled with care and intelligence.
In some cases the customers in the vicinity of the stations
have been supplied by laying a solid system of tubes for low-
tension currents from the stations through the main streets
and connecting directly with the buildings to be served.
In other cases a combination of drawing-in system and
solid system has been employed by sending low-tension current
through cables in conduits from the station to certain deter-
mined points throughout the district and there connecting to
solid tube lines which carry the current to individual buildings.
Another method is to send high-tension current from the
station through cables in conduits to points in the immediate
vicinity of the customers to be served, and there transform to
a voltage suitable for the work, and distribute the weaker cur-
rent into the buildings. The transformers may be placed in
manholes or vaults or on poles or buildings.
The current is also sent out from the station at from 500
to 3,000 volts and used without transforming for power or
lighting.
It is of great advantage to determine which of the above
methods or what combination of them is to be used before
laying out the conduit system, which can then be designed to
suit the plan of distribution decided upon.
When an underground system is to be laid out, it is gen-
erally designed to take the place of an overhead distributing
system, and in that case the plan is often to place only the main
lines underground at first, to connect at convenient points to
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 273
pole lines or house tops and continue the local overhead dis-
tribution. This is somewhat of a saving at first, but in practice
the combination has generally been only temporarily continued
and eventually the thoroughly underground system with
individual building connections has been usually adopted as
tending to true economy and good service.
Having in mind the varied conditions as noted above that
may arise, it is evident that in making the original design for
a system of underground conduits for an electric light and power
plant, due consideration should be given to the probability that
there will be an ultimate demand for an entirely underground
distributing system. This will often be a factor in choosing
locations for conduits and manholes, and a reasonable extra
expense is in some cases warranted in the original work in
order to provide for probable future requirements.
A scheme which is often proposed and sometimes finds
favor with managers and engineers who desire to do thorough
work, is to construct either one or two conduits in each street,
separate from the main line, to be used only for local distribu-
tion; from these smaller conduits connections are at once made
to all buildings where service is or may at any future time be
required.
This would seem to provide well for future business and
preclude the necessity of any further excavation in the street,
— two important features in its favor and which make it in a
few special cases an ideal system. For use in the average city,
however, this system seems to be more ideal than practicable.
The discrepancy between the possibilities which must be
provided for in such a system and the use that is actually made
of the facilities provided is so great that the cost figures out
of all proportion to the probable benefit to be derived.
The method generally employed is to make connections to
buildings from the main conduit line when practicable and to
run spur lines into localities where business is reasonably assured
and the main line is not accessible.
It is at times considered very desirable to construct a
common conduit system for the wires of two or more companies,
in the interest of economy and to avoid the inconvenience of
constructing parallel lines in the same streets. If the work is
laid out and constructed without proper consideration and
care, there is great chance for trouble from such a combination,
but if the use each company is to make of the system is intelli-
gently considered in designing the conduit and locating the
274 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
manholes, and the proper extra care taken in construction
because of the peculiar nature of the work, it is perfectly feasible
to construct an underground conduit system which shall be
satisfactory for the use of two or three companies.
The number, location and size of manholes to be built is
governed by the requirements of the system and local conditions ;
it is possible to properly operate a conduit with stretches of
700 or 800 ft. between the manholes, but it is considered best
to limit the distance to about 300 ft. where practicable, and
manholes may be placed as often as is necessary to meet the
local conditions.
Manholes should be located at the low points in the grade
if practicable, as it is an advantage to have all parts of the
conduit system drain to the manholes.
There must be a manhole at each point where two conduits
intersect, and others are located at convenient points for making
connections to buildings, etc.
The minimum practical size for a manhole is about 3.5 ft.
X 4 ft. X 5 ft. deep, and should be limited to conduits of 4
ducts or less.
A manhole 5 ft. X 6 ft. X 7 ft. deep is considered satis-
factory for a conduit of 12 to 15 ducts, and one 8 ft. square and
10 ft. deep will serve for 30 or 40 ducts.
The kind of service to be performed and the character of
the current to be used should both be factors in determining
the size of manholes, and when apparatus other than cable is
to be installed in a manhole, its dimensions should be increased
for that purpose so that the space for handling cables will not
be reduced.
Manholes are made with walls of brick masonry or con-
crete; the tops are of stone slabs or brick masonry supported
by steel beams, or of reinforced concrete, with iron frames and
covers.
In the suburban districts where many manholes of the same
size and shape are to be constructed, the use of concrete has
become quite popular, but in the congested streets of the cities,
on account of the peculiar shapes often required and general
lack of similarity between manholes, nearly all have been built
of brick masonry.
In designing the iron frame and cover, the circular shape
has a distinct advantage over the square, in that the square
cover may fall into the hole to the detriment of the cables,
while with the round cover this is impossible.
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 275
Having, as above described, determined what cables and
conduits are required in the different portions of the district
for local service and trunk lines, the next step in the laying
out of the system is to determine by the accumulative method,
with proper allowances, the size of conduit required for each
portion of the route to the station.
The investigation so far outlined will determine in what
streets of the district conduits are to be built, but in choosing
the route for the larger main line conduit from the station, it
is often found that two or three streets are about equally suit-
able as regards directness of route, and in this case it is well in
making a choice to consider the general surface conditions and
the underground structures in the streets in question.
This brings us to the question of detailed street plans,
regarding the necessity for which there is some difference of
opinion.
There can be little doubt as to the advisability of providing
plans containing all information obtainable in regard to streets
where conduits are to be built in the congested portions of cities.
In the smaller cities and suburban districts some engineers
of experience prefer to dispense with detailed plans and to be
guided by advance investigation at the time of building the
conduit.
This may be at times a wise policy, but on general prin-
ciples it is safe to maintain that the money expended in plans
intelligently made is well spent, and the information obtained,
however meager, is well worth what it costs.
The preliminary plans of city streets may show gas and
water pipes, sewers, pneumatic tubes, electric conduits, heating
conduits, sidewalk lines and areas, subways, car tracks and
cross-walks.
It is also well to note the grades of the street surface and
of underground structures when possible.
These plans, in order to be reasonably reliable, should be
made by or under the immediate supervision of one who is
well informed in regard to the structures to be found under-
ground and the details of their construction.
In some cities the location for the conduit in the street is
designated by a city official, but usually the engineer in charge
of the work submits a proposed location to be approved by
municipal authorities.
The determining of this location is an important matter
and one to which the engineer may well give careful considera-
276 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
tion, as an error of judgment in this detail is likely to be expen-
sive and may lead to a permanent defect in the system.
The conduit should, when practicable, be laid to a straight
line and grade; this is especially desirable where the ducts
are to be well filled with cables, or long distances between man-
holes are required.
A curve of reasonable radius is not a serious objection where
the length between manholes is short, but bends or sharp curves
are objectionable at any point in the system and should be
avoided.
In constructing the conduit of either of the materials men-
tioned, the quality of the work performed in the construction
is really the important factor, as the best materials cannot give
good results unless properly handled.
The fact should be constantly kept in mind that the work
is to be immediately and permanently covered from view, and
any defect in material or construction will remain a defect and
become a part of the system.
When the conduit is to be built by contract, detailed
specifications should be prepared and the work should be thor-
oughly inspected while in progress.
The questions of drainage and ventilation of the conduit
system may well be considered together because the usual
method of drainage by connecting the manholes with sewers
makes a reason for ventilation, and the popular method of
providing ventilation by perforating the manhole covers creates
an additional demand for drainage.
The opinions of engineers vary to a very wide degree in
regard to the advisability and necessity of draining and ven-
tilating manholes.
In one or two localities all manholes have been equipped
with drains and a pipe run through each manhole to supply air
under pressure; openings in the pipe in the manholes were so
regulated as to produce a pressure of air in the manholes slightly
in excess of the pressure of gas in the ground adjacent. This
system is effective, but expensive and not generally warranted.
In some systems all manholes are supplied with drains and
all covers perforated, with the idea that whatever gas or water
comes in one way will go out the other.
A method of dealing with the matter which has been tried
with success in several cities is to make all manholes reasonably
tight, waterproofing when necessary, provide against gas by
plastering the manhole walls thoroughly and closing all ducts
WATERPROOFING FOR MANHOLE.
Construction of Manhole inside Waterproofing.
Half of Conduit of 244 Single Ducts with Socket Ends.
Building Submarine Conduit.
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Congress Street Submarine Conduit in Transit.
Dover Street Submarine Conduit, showing Bracing for Handling.
Loading Conduit with Stone for Sinking.
Lowering Conduit into Position at Dover Street Bridge.
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 277
at the manholes, and, by a tight inside cover, prevent the water
from coming in from the street. In this way the manholes are
practically isolated from the surrounding soil 'and from each
other, and any leakage of water or gas will be so small to as
give little trouble.
The closing up of the ducts between manholes prevents
the spread of gas or water from one to another, and in case of
gas especially this greatly facilitates locating the leak.
This method of sealing the manholes up from outside influ-
ences is quite an advantage over having gas and water and
sometimes steam and sewage pass in and out of the system.
In passing to the -subject of submarine conduits, it will be
well to mention briefly the circumstances which led to the con-
struction of those which will here be described and illustrated.
When the power station of the Boston Electric Light Com-
pany at Gilbert Place was to be discontinued and a site for a
new station was selected at L Street in South Boston, it was
found that in order to send the current by a reasonably direct
route from the new station to the central part of the city, the
cables would have to cross Fort Point Channel and the Reserved
Channel near L Street. •
It was of the utmost importance that the cables should be
so placed that there would be no probability of their being
disturbed or injured, as the failure of these cables would mean
practically the shutting off of current from the main portion
of the city.
To have laid submarine cables would have entailed a large
expenditure for the purchase of a sufficient number of armored
cables, the dredging of trenches across the channels, the placing
of all cables required, and filling in the trenches to protect the
cables from dragging anchors.
In case of additional cables being required at any time, the
dredging and filling would have to be repeated, and in case of
the failure of a cable, the process of replacing would be slow
and expensive.
After thoroughly considering the problem, it was finally
concluded to construct submarine conduits so as to practically
continue the underground drawing-in system across under both
channels.
Previous to this time a submarine conduit for telephone
wires had been laid across the Harlem River near High Bridge
in New York.
The conduit was composed of a number of wrought-iron
278 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
pipes with screw couplings, and protected on the outside by
winding many layers of cloth saturated with a compound to
preserve the pipe from action of water.
The pipes were bent to conform to the general contour of
the river bottom, fastened together and the whole was covered
with a jacket of creosoted wood.
A trench was dredged to a careful grade and the conduit
was placed in the trench and covered.
In September, 1898, the first submarine conduit in Boston
was laid for the New England Telephone and Telegraph Com-
pany under the channel of the Charles River at Warren Bridge.
This conduit contains seven wrought-iron pipes with screw
couplings, each pipe having a protecting covering of several
layers of asphalt and cheese cloth.
The pipes were assembled and secured in proper relative
position each 2 or 3 ft. by being passed through wooden dia-
phragms 4 in. thick and 16 in. in diameter.
The whole was then enclosed in a shell of creosoted wood,
4 in. thick and 24 in. outside diameter, secured by iron straps.
The completed conduit was shaped like the letter U, with
a length of about 48 ft. between uprights and having a total
length of about 128 ft.
A trench was excavated into which the conduit was low-
ered, and the trench was refilled.
Both of these conduits described were intended to be water-
tight.
In designing submarine conduits for the main lines of the
Boston Electric Light Company, it was finally decided to depart
from all known precedent and build the conduit entirely of
untreated wood.
The timber used was green pine, excepting for a section 12
ft. long in each of the uprights, 6 ft. above and below the mud
line, where oak timber was used to avoid the attack of insects.
The conduits were made up of seven vertical layers of tim-
ber, each 6 in. thick, with semi-circular grooves planed in the
opposite sides of each layer, so spaced as to leave, when the
timbers were assembled, twenty-four parallel holes 35 in. in
diameter through the entire length of the conduit.
These and other details of construction are clearly shown
in the illustrations.
The timbers were laid up with staggered joints and fas-
tened together at frequent intervals by galvanized iron rods
with nuts and washers and also by kiln-dried-pine dowel pins.
UNDERGROUND AND SUBMARINE CONDUITS. 279
The rods were used as convenient in properly assembling
the parts and the dowel pins were regarded as the permanent
fastenings.
Both extended horizontally and vertically through the
entire structure.
The conduits were built in sections with stepped joints on
a' wharf at Fort Point Channel; the sections were launched off
the wharf and the joints between the sections were made up
while they were floating in the water.
When the completed conduits had been tested, they were
taken in charge by floating derricks and pile drivers and care-
fully towed to the positions where they were to be installed.
Trenches to receive the conduit having been previously
dredged, the conduits were weighted with blocks of stone and
carefully lowered into the trenches, the tops of the uprights
were placed and secured in proper position and the trenches
were refilled over the conduits to the levels of the bottom of the
channels.
The conduit at the Reserved Channel was 75 ft. in hori
zontal length, with uprights 25 ft. in height.
The one at Fort Point Channel was obliged to pass under a
double channel with a draw pier between, and was 200 ft. in
horizontal length with uprights 40 ft. in height; the horizontal
portion being laid 30 ft. below low-water mark.
The horizontal and vertical members were in each case
connected 'by curves of 10 ft. inside radius.
The conduit at Fort Point Channel contained about 31,000
ft. of lumber.
These wooden submarine conduits as above described and
illustrated have been in constant use under Fort Point Channel
at Congress Street and Dover Street and under the Reserved
Channel at L Street for the past six years ; they have been
very satisfactory in service and are apparently in perfect con-
dition at the present time.
Editors reprinting articles from this Journal are requested to credit the author, the Journal of
the Association, and the Society before which such articles were read.
Association
OF
Engineering Societies.
Organized 1881.
VOL. XXXIV. JUNE, 1905. No. 6.
This Association is not responsible for the subject-matter contributed by any Society or for the
statements or opinions of members of the Societies.
THE USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION.
By W. C. Parmley, Member American Society of Civil Engineers.
[Read before the Sanitary Section of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers February i, 1905.]
The use of concrete rests upon confidence in its integrity
as a building material; and with increasing experience, the addi-
tional confidence gained leads to its use in ever widening fields.
This process of expansion or adaptation was never more active
than it is to-day, and in no field is this activity more noticeable
than in sewer building.
Stone was naturally the first material to be used in building
permanent sewers, but for many years, brick has so supplanted
it, that the older material is all but obsolete. Now, again, the
older and the inferior, in the march of progress, is giving way
to a newer and better material, concrete.
But why this change? For centuries brick masonry has
stood the test and has been almost the only material used,
except for very small sizes. Probably four out of five engineers
would answer that it is because it has been the most economical
building material. Important as is the matter of cost, this
thought is often held too prominently in the front, and while
naturally it appeals most strongly to the layman, it ought not so
to control the thought of the engineer. Let us see, then, what
advantages other than cost are possessed by concrete, which
if sufficiently important should determine the choice of material,
whether there be a saving or not.
The generally rough surface of a brick wall is a great
disadvantage for any conduit used to carry water. This is
282 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
especially pronounced in small sewers where the curvature is
too great for a smooth, continuous surface to be produced by-
rectangular bricks. Concrete gives a much smoother surface
and a greater carrying capacity.
Again, in wet trenches, concrete is superior to brick masonry,
as water can be held back by depositing a dry concrete mixture
in place, and an impervious wall obtained that is otherwise
impossible.
A third advantage of concrete is that a more resisting
surface can be produced than with any but the hardest vitrified
bricks. Witness the abrasive resistance of the surface of a
well-laid sidewalk. Few natural stones, other than granite, are
comparable to it.
As brick sewers are usually built of concentric rowlock
rings of bricks, under severe conditions these rings tend strongly
to separate or split apart, and so far does this deformation some-
times proceed that a complete inversion of curvature at the
upper part of the arch is produced. Another and similar defect
is where the inner ring of bricks falls completely out of the arch.
Many such cases can probably be found in any of our large
cities. Concrete obviously avoids these difficulties.
Portland cement masonry is more permanent than ordinary
brick masonry. Sewers of common brick, not over twenty-five
years old, are frequently seen in an advanced stage of disinte-
gration. The use of best vitrified shale bricks should produce
a wall of good permanency, but no greater than one built out
of the best Portland cement concrete. In the present state of
the art, then, the chances of securing a permanent structure are,
at least, rather more favorable to concrete than to brick work.
With concrete, therefore, a sewer can be built that is equal
to or greater in permanency than one formed of bricks, and at the
same time smoother, more water-tight, and less liable to damage
and collapse through excessive loads, vibrations or unsuitable
foundations. The advantage of concrete in comparative cost is
even more marked.
First. Within recent years the price of bricks has increased
about 50 per cent, while the cost of Portland cement has de-
creased at least 50 per cent. The market price of broken stone
and sand, while governed almost entirely by local conditions,
has remained more constant, with a downward tendency.
Second. From 75 to 80 per cent, of the weight of the entire
masonry wall, that is the bricks, must be transported from the
factory to the site of the work. A large cost, therefore, is usually
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 283
involved in freight or teaming charges. On the other hand,
frequently only from 8 to 10 per cent, of the weight of concrete
structures, that is, the cement, has to be transported long dis-
tances, and since the quantity required is only slightly more than
that for brick masonry, the gain is still more apparent. Sand,
broken stone or gravel are very commonly to be had near at
hand. The unsuitability of common bricks for sewer purposes
and the high price required to obtain the shale or vitrified brick
necessary to produce a resisting surface and durable sewer
operate to increase the cost of masonry structures.
Third. Only skilled bricklayers can lay the bricks for a
sewer, and as the labor is skilled, the cost is proportionately
high. While the general trend of wages has been upward, the
increase in those of the bricklayers has been vastly out of pro-
portion to those of the ordinary intelligent general workman
and the common laborer. In the case of concrete, nearly all the
work can be done by the common laborer, so that the cost is
proportionately low.
Fourth. On account of the limited number of skilled
bricklayers, they naturally form unions to control and increase
the price of their labor. The contractor, for personal safety,
must take into account the risk of strikes, in preparing his bid.
In the case of concrete work, only a small amount of skilled
labor is required, and such as there is can be quickly learned by
the ordinary workman. The contractor, therefore, is much less
liable to be affected by delays of labor difficulties. The effective
progress of an entire gang of laborers on a brick sewer often is
seriously interfered with or entirely stopped by the failure of a
few bricklayers to report for duty and do their assigned work
at the proper time. In concrete sewer construction, the failure
of a few workmen results in no such delay and trouble, as other
men can take their places and the work go on without serious
interruption.
Fifth. A brick wall must be built of sufficient thickness to
contain the line of pressure near the middle third of the ring in
order to prevent cracking and serious deformation. This
necessity results in working the materials at a very low efficiency.
For example, masonry that is capable of sustaining safely from
1 000 to 2 000 lbs. pressure per sq. in. is worked at a pressure
rarely exceeding 300 lb. per sq. in., as to increase the unit
pressure would produce rupture in the portion of the arch subject
to tension. In other fields, the engineer is not satisfied with
efficiencies of onlv one-third or one-sixth of what can be
284 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
obtained. Why should he be in this case? It is the good fortune
of the times that he is not thus circumscribed, for, while the
thickness of a wall made of concrete alone should be substantially
equal to that of a brick wall for the same purpose, the concrete
has the advantage in that it can be reinforced with steel. With
steel reinforced concrete, the mass of masonry may be cut down
by 50 per cent., and the materials composing the structure be
worked at predetermined and properly ascertained efficiencies.
Sixth. The fact that a required strength can be obtained
with less than two-thirds the amount of concrete when rein-
forced, than can be used when it is not so reinforced, leads us
one step farther. For certain structures, the concrete may be
molded into blocks of suitable size and shape beforehand, and
then set in the finished work. This leads to great economy in the
use of centering and falsework generally, and even economizes on
that required for brick masonry, because, with concrete blocks,
the percentage of soft mortar in the joints can be reduced to 6 or 8
per cent., whereas in a brick sewer arch, it forms from 25 to 33
per cent, of the entire mass. Hence, not only lighter centering
can be used for a reinforced concrete block sewer, but such as is
used need not remain in position so long and can be used over
oftener. For sewers of about 4 ft. diameter or less, blocks can
be so made as to avoid all centering, both interior and exterior,
such as is required for either a brick or monolithic concrete sewer,
and this is obviously a very material gain over brick construction
or monolithic concrete.
Seventh. The disadvantage experienced in monolithic
concrete as compared with brick masonry, is that inside forms
only are used. The concrete is therefore banked directly
against the side of the trench. It thus becomes necessary to
specify a minimum thickness of side wall, and as it is impossible
to excavate a trench to an exact width, the contractor must
figure on using more concrete than that called for by the plan,
the exact amount being determined by his confidence in his own
ability to excavate to the neat line required by the plan. With
reinforced concrete blocks, this extra concrete can be very
nearly or entirely avoided, and well tamped earth substituted
instead. The further advantage is possessed by the fact that a
reinforced block structure would be concrete of good quality
clear to the very edges of the structure, and hence the full
theoretical efficiency of the concrete can be depended upon,
which cannot be done in case of concrete deposited against
ordinary forms.
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 285
Eighth. A concrete sewer, especially when reinforced,
requires less width of excavation than does a brick sewer. This
results, first, from the thinner side wall required, and, second,
from the necessity of digging the trench for a brick sewer wider
than the sewer, in order to permit the proper laying of the
bricks on the portion of the arch immediately above the springing
line. A further result is that the brick arch is more liable to
deform because backed up with filled material, instead of by the
natural earth.
These, then, are some of the advantages which a concrete
sewer possesses over one built of brick masonry, and whatever
comparative disadvantages there may be in the monolithic sewer,
they are more than overcome by the use of concrete blocks.
The greatest drawback at the present time to the con-
struction of concrete sewers is the prevailing timidity of the
contractor to bid upon them, owing to inexperience in concrete
work, and especially in reinforced concrete construction. The
remark is often made by the contractor that the construction
seems to be all right, but he dare not bid upon it until he has
learned more about it. Or, that he will visit places where
reinforced concrete sewers are under construction, in order to
prepare himself to bid on future work. We are thus in the
distinctly educative period of the art, and it is not only the con-
tractors, but the engineers, often, that need instruction before
they will venture out of the time-honored and beaten pathways.
But the educative process is proceeding rapidly, and each year
more and more concrete sewers are built.
Turning now from general discussion, permit me to give
some notes and observations of personal experience. Early in
my engineering career, nearly twenty years ago, I was introduced
to the use of Portland cement concrete on a large scale, in the
lining of irrigation canals and tunnels in California. For such
purposes, concrete was common at that time. Even then, it
was the ordinary method of lining tunnels in both earth and
rock where permanent lining was necessary. Yet up to the
present time, it seems impossible to convince some of our Eastern
contractors that any material other than brick masonry is suit-
able for a tunnel roof. By properly constructed and manipulated
centering, there is no more suitable material for tunnel purposes,
and its cost should be less than that of brick work.
In Cleveland, where probably more concrete sewer work of
late years has been done than in any other American city, the
first important use of concrete for this purpose was in the
286 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
foundation of the Walworth sewer. The entire foundation and
lower part of the side wall was built of natural cement concrete.
The work was begun in 1896, and was in process of construction
continuously for about six years.
Where it occurs in large mass, and is not subject to great
unit stress, natural cement concrete is not only reliable, but
often more economical than Portland cement. During the
progress of the work, I had comparative tests made on about
800 briquettes, covering a period of two years. These tests
showed that a good quality of natural cement mortar made 1:2,
at the age of six months or over, developed nearly as much and
in some instances greater tensile strength than mortar made
1:3, using the same sand and a representative Portland cement.
Comparative observations were made on the natural cement
concrete side walls and the Portland cement concrete of the
arch after the lapse of a year with similar results. As a rule,
however, it is only in the lower part of the foundation, where
the bearing surface is large with corresponding low unit pressure
that natural cement concrete is available, for the upper portions
of a sewer must carry the earth load before a natural cement
concrete would gain sufficient strength. On account of its
economy, natural cement concrete was used for the entire founda-
tion and side wall of the main intercepting sewer. This sewer,
however, was lined, as was also the Walworth sewer, with two
rings of the hardest vitrified shale bricks laid in 1 : 2 Portland
mortar in the bottom, and with one such ring at the sides. The
interceptor of 13 ft. 6 in. diameter is of reinforced concrete, with a
total thickness at the springing line of the arch of 15 in., in-
cluding the lining ring of bricks. In spite of this rather bold use
of natural cement concrete, no trouble was experienced with the
side walls, even in trench 40 ft. deep with the weight of 25 ft. of
wet clay and sand backfill. The bottom of the trench was in a
wet, soft, blue clay that in places heaved so (in several instances
18 in. or more) as to necessitate the removal and entire rebuild-
ing of the bottom and central portion of the invert. An extra
foot or more of concrete in these places prevented further rise
till the arch could be built and loaded. Under the enormous
pressures, side walls were occasionally forced in slightly before
the arch was built. This tendency was checked by setting braces
across the top of the invert and letting them bear lightly against
longitudinal planks to distribute the pressure while the mortar
was hardening. It was remarkable, however, how rigid even
a green natural cement concrete wall was against those pressures,
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 287
but this rigidity was no doubt due to the fact that the outer
anchor bars of 2 in. by 0.5 in. steel, placed every 30 in., extended
down 4 ft. below the top of the side wall and so resisted the
overturning moment. Occasionally, in the deep trench, the
width between the sheeting was pinched together, so that the
total thickness at the side was only 1 2 in. or less. In these cases,
the Portland cement concrete was usually carried down to about
3 ft. below the springing line.
In the matter of forms for invert work, the practice is not
uniform among contractors. One of the first forms used in the
Walworth sewer was like a piece of segmental arch centering
inverted, and with the lagging nailed fast to the ribs. The
trouble with this form is that it is difficult to tamp concrete
under the bottom portion of the form, and hence a very rough
surface is produced. Much better results were obtained by
omitting the lagging boards on the bottom and at the sides till
a point was reached where the inclination of the concrete surface
was about 45°. The concrete for the bottom could then be
worked down between the ribs, thorough tamping done, and a
good surface obtained. The ribs serve as a guide, so that the
workman produces the proper shape. From this point up to the
vertical, good results can be secured with the ribs attached to
the lagging. Some contractors found it more convenient to use
ribs that were connected with each other by a skeleton framework
only, and then to slip the lagging in, one piece at a time. For
some of the sewers, in which the brick lining was not carried
quite tip to the spring line, a separate side form of skeleton ribs
and loose lagging was set upon brace legs bearing on the bottom
of the invert. This form carried the concrete from about 2 ft.
below to about 2 ft. above the springing line. The arch ribs
then became segmental and rested upon the middle braces.
This method has the advantage of using ribs that are lighter and
more easily handled than those that are semi-circular. For
arch centering, it is necessary and convenient to use indepen-
dent ribs and loose lagging, for the centers can then be carried
forward piecemeal, the falsework upholding the green arch and
re-erected at the advance end of the work. In these matters
each contractor prefers to use his own ingenuity, and so long as
the work is properly built, the engineer can well give him con-
siderable latitude as to use of methods. One thing, however, the
engineer must insist upon, — that all centering and falsework be as
nearly rigid as possible. Even a slight settlement of the centers
at the crown under the load of concrete and backfill will cause
288 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
the arch to kick out at the quarters, and if the green concrete
arch is not cracked at the crown, it will be crushed on the inside
about half way between the crown and springing line. A re-
inforced arch is no more immune to this danger than is a plain
concrete arch. However, with a few days of hardening, al-
though the damage may be serious, the danger of actual collapse
is less. A point to be guarded against, especially in reinforced
construction, is any foolish act on the part of contractor or
workman, due to his overconfidence in the strength of the
structure because it contains embedded steel.
For wTet foundations, the question of whether wooden
grillage should be used or not is at times important. After a
good deal of experience with the use of concrete in wet bottoms,
my opinions have undergone a change. If brick masonry is to be
laid where the bottom is both soft and wet, it is usually necessary
to provide a plank foundation on which to begin the work.
Practice suitable for brick masonry is often carried over to con-
ditions where it is not only not necessary, but conducive to bad
foundations in case of concrete. If quicksand is encountered,
or material so soft that it rises, and there is a large quantity of
water to be pumped, a plank platform should be used. In
fairly hard but wet clay, or coarse sand or gravel, even though
there may be considerable water, a more compact and solid
foundation can be obtained by depositing the concrete directly
on the bottom. It is very difficult to lay sleepers and cross
planking so there will not be cavities underneath. Under the
full weight of the structure, the planking will probably settle
till all cavities are filled. If the grillage had been omitted, the
concrete would have conformed to the irregularities of the
bottom and prevented settlement. In case it is impossible to
get rid of the water, use a dry concrete mixture, deposit and
tamp it in as large mass as possible without much spreading. If
it does not come in contact with flowing water, most of the
cement will harden in place. Even if some of the cement is
washed away from the very bottom layers of concrete forming
the transition between the foundation and the soft earth sup-
porting it, no fear need be felt, for even a good layer of broken
stone or gravel would transfer the pressure safely, if there were no
cementing material.
Concrete will flush up to the forms and produce a better
surface, and the voids in the stone will be much better filled
if it is so wet as to require but little tamping; moreover, there is
less danger of obtaining a weak, porous wall should a workman
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USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 289
neglect thorough tamping, than there is where only a moist
mixture is used. It is also to the contractor's interest to use
wet concrete, for much less labor is required in mixing and
placing it. Small broken stone or gravel is preferable in con-
crete for sewers. The walls being comparatively thin, unless
there be a considerable excess of mortar, if coarse stones are
used, the concrete will be honey-combed with voids. The
stones should be well graded in size from large to fine, but the
largest fragments should not exceed 1.5 in. in greatest dimension.
It is not always possible to get the range and size of stones
desired, and if both coarse and fine material are on the work, the
coarser should be used in the bottom of the foundations and
the finer stone reserved for the side walls and the arch.
In the selection of sand, a few years ago, it seemed to be
the opinion of a majority of the Cleveland engineers that lake
sand would give stronger result than bank sand, but laboratory
results have contradicted this theory, and fairly clean bank sand
is now generally preferred. Experiments in recent years have
shown that a small percentage of clay in the sand is not harmful,
and a better graduation of size between the coarse and fine
grades can be obtained in bank sand, than there can be in that
which comes from the lake.
Reinforced concrete has been very largely used during the
last three years in the Cleveland sewers. About 3.5 miles of
main intercepting sewer, 13.5 ft., and with a short section of 12 ft.
9 in. diameter, and upwards of four miles of other sewers ranging
from about 5 ft. to 12 ft. diameter, have been under construction,
and most of them are now completed. As the intercepting
sewers were recently described,* only some points of detail
in regard to the concrete work upon them will be mentioned
The question of cost of labor on the different parts of such
work is of value, and while no complete data are at hand, a few
observations may be given. Some of the contractors preferred
to use hand mixed concrete, while others used concrete mixers.
The results recorded were upon hand mixed concrete. The
sewer gangs soon fell into a plan of division of labor, so that,
except in case of accident or special contingency, the work went
on quite regularly day by day. The common labor was largely
Italian and the more skilled labor, American. The steel skeleton
consisted of 2-in.by 0.5 in. bars 15-in. centers with a few longi-
tudinal bars of 1.5 in. by 0.25 in. Two rows of anchor bars were
set in the side walls, and the top bars were attached by means of
* Journal Association Engineering Societies, November, 1904.
29o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
bolts. The metal was all delivered from the mill accurately
shaped, so that no bending was done in the field. The weight
of metal per lineal foot of the 13.5 ft. sewer was about 93 lb.
The concrete arch was 12 in. thick at the crown, and 15 in. thick
at the spring line, as before mentioned. The time upon which
estimates are based was reported by an inspector always on the
work. The first observation covered two days' work, under
average conditions, the workmen and contractor not knowing
that notes were being taken. The figures, however, are for
one day's work.
Labor placing anchor bars:
1 man, $3.50 per day
1 man, 1.75 per day
4 hr. carrying steel at 20 cents, .80
$6.05
The anchor bars were placed for 40 lin. ft. of sewer, or
about 1 504 lb. of metal at a cost of 0.4 of a cent per lb.
The concreting gang for the sides consisted of
5 men wheeling and mixing at $1.75, $8.75
1 man tamping, 1.75
§ time man lowering brick and concrete
at $2.25 1.50
1 man carrying concrete, 1.75
'13-75
This gang built the side wall for 40 ft. of sewer daily, or
13 cu. yd. Cost of labor per cu. yd. was, therefore, $1.06.
The concrete was tamped behind the brick lining as the latter
was built up by the mason.
Cost of single ring brick lining at sides :
2 masons at 70 cents per hr., $11 .20
1 man mixing mortar, 2.25
I time man lowering at $2.25, .75
3 men wheeling sand, filling buckets and
dumping, 5.25
Total labor for 40 lin. ft. of sewer, $19 .45
Quantity of brick masonry laid, 6.38 cu. yd.
Labor per cu. yd., $3-05
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 291
An account was kept of labor performed on 85 lin. ft. of
arch work, or 14 J ft. daily. The force was as follows:
1 man putting mortar lining on centering, $1.75
2 men mixing mortar, screening and wheel-
ing sand, 3.50
1 man tamping concrete, 1.75
8 men on mixing board at $1.75, 14.00
$21.00
No. cu. yd. placed daily,
25.64
Labor per cu. yd.,
$0.82
acing centering and arch bars:
Men on centering and steel work:
2 men at $1.75,
$3-So
1 man at $3.50,
3-5°
$7.00
Cost, for 14I ft. daily, $0.49 per lin. ft.
As nearly as could be judged, about two-thirds of the labor
was used in erecting the centering and one-third in putting the
steel in place. The amount of steel placed daily was 785 lb. at a
cost, therefore, of 0.3 of a cent per lb., and the cost of erecting
and moving centers, $0.33 per lin. ft. of arch.
Another record of 39.27 ft. on a curve, gave for the cost of
the brick work at sides the same result as above, but the in-
spector's record of men working on concrete backing at sides
showed a less cost, as follows:
4 men mixing at $1.75, $7.00
§ time man lowering at $2.25, 1.50
1 man in bottom, 1.75
.10.25
They placed 12.7 cu. yd. at a cost of $0.81 per cu. yd.
This figure probably more nearly represents the average cost
than the $1.06 reported in the first instance.
The cost of placing the anchor bars on straight sewer,
representing average progress, at another time, was found to be:
1 man, $3-5°
1 man, 1.75
$5-25
292 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
They placed the steel for 44 ft. of sewer or 1 650 lb. at a
cost of 0.32 of a cent per lb.
Further notes for 6 days' work, when it seemed to represent
as nearly as possible the general average for the whole were :
Labor on arch concrete:
Daily progress was 13 1 ft.
The force employed was:
7 men making concrete at $1.75, $12.25
1 man plastering the center, 1.75
1 man mixing mortar, 2.00
1 man tamping, 1.75
$i7-7S
On straight arch work they placed 24.1 cu. yd. daily at a
cost of $0.74 per cu. yd. In three days' work on a curve, the
same gang placed 26.37 cu- Y&- daily at a cost of $0,675 Per
cu. yd.
On centering and steel for arch, three men kept up with
the regular progress of the arch-concreting gang. The cost,
therefore, is:
1 man, $3. 50
2 men at $1.75, 3.50
$7.00
They averaged 13 ft. daily, or at a total cost of about $0.54
per lin. ft. of sewer.
Two-thirds of this labor was on the centering or $0.36 per
lin. ft. of arch; $0.18 per lin. ft. placed the steel ready for em-
bedding, or about 55.5 lb. per ft. of arch, at a cost of 0.32 of a
cent per lb.
For the double ring brick lining at the bottom, the regular
daily rate of progress was 28 ft. or 11. 15 cu. yd. with:
2 bricklayers, $11.20
5 men at $1.75, 8.75
1 man at $2.25, 2.25
$22. 2C
or at a cost of $1.98 per cu. yd. This is given only because it is
of interest in connection with the cost of the concrete.
Other observations on cost of placing steel skeleton and
concrete did not vary materially from the figures given. It will
be observed that no charge for superintendence or anything
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 293
for the general expenses is included in the estimates of cost.
These charges were, of course, impossible to obtain. On another
contract with machine mixing, as high as 36 lin.ft.of 13 ft. 6 in. arch
were built in a day, but no data as to cost were taken, though
it was evidently less than for the work with hand-mixed concrete.
Contractors sometimes object to bidding low on small con-
certe sewers, especially when reinforced, the objection being that
the trench is too narrow for convenient working, that owing to
the thin walls, the cost is proportionately high for each unit of
volume, and that there is greater danger of the carelessness of
workmen, causing trouble for the contractor. These troubles are
serious only on sizes less than about 4 ft. diameter. But with
reinforced sewers built of concrete blocks, suitably designed
and manufactured beforehand, all these objections are avoided.
The material for the blocks should be well graded, with the
largest fragments not more than .75 in. in size, and with a con-
siderable surplus of the mortar constituent, in order to make
dense concrete. The proportions of 1:3:4^ will give good
results, and a very superior quality is obtained with a 1 : 2 : 3
mixture. It is desirable, furthermore, to coat the inner surfaces
with a paint of neat cement, applied with a brush, best applied
before the blocks have acquired any considerable hardness.
The reinforcing steel should be set in a thin mixture of 1 : 2
Portland cement, or, for special cases, a 1 : 1 mortar. As no
centering whatever is required for the smaller sizes, they can be
conveniently built in a narrow trench; there is no danger of spots
of poor concrete making a defective sewer wall, and the sewer
can be backed up with well tamped earth, which cannot usually
be done in monolithic construction. The ease and accuracy
with which the invert blocks can be laid in a wet trench , and the
work generally protected against the damaging effect of water
during construction, besides many other advantages, appeal
strongly both to the contractor and the engineer.
I have no hesitation in saying that at some future date,
reinforced concrete will be the material used above all others
for sewer building. How soon that time shall come will depend
upon ourselves as engineers.
DISCUSSION.
Question. — I would like to ask a little more in detail how
the joints for concrete block sewers are made.
Answer. — The joints of the block sewer can be either
radial, or they can be made with a symmetrical reverse curve.
294 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Ques. — I would like to ask about the method of putting
them together.
Ans. — We will assume that a foot is the standard length
for a block, — I mean a foot lengthwise of the sewer, — and all
the blocks are the same length in that direction. I am speaking
now with reference to a small sewer where each of the four blocks
makes the quadrant of the circle. The blocks for the lower
quadrant wotild be like a concrete gutter in the bottom of a
ditch, and the conditions would be such there that you could
lay a very smooth invert, because the workmen can always see
what they are doing, and the inspector on the top of the bank
can see ; whereas, if the joints are back inside of a pipe you cannot
tell whether he is laying his pipes concentric with each other,
or laying them so they will sag. When the side blocks are
set, they should be set so as to break joints with the bottom
blocks; that gives good foundation construction. The joints
of the side and arch blocks do not break; they form a ring,
and the inner edge of each block projects forward and butts
against the square end of the block next ahead of it. That
leaves a groove where the steel rods are grouted in, the rabbeted
end of the block always facing the workman. It is thus in a
position where he can do good work, and where he can easily
place the steel rod.
Ques. (by Mr. Johnson). — Do you provide any longitu-
dinal reinforcement?
Ans. — The longitudinal reinforcement in a four-block
sewer is placed in the upper joints, at the upper quarters, and
the most convenient shape is the thin flat bar, a little longer
than the block, so that the bars will lap on themselves.
Ques. — What size do you make your block sewers?
Ans. — From about 20 in", up to 4 or 5 ft. diameter. For
larger sizes it is cheaper to use monolithic concrete.
Ques. — Does the iron go through the bottom of the
invert ?
Ans. — Only where the sewer is to withstand internal
pressure, or where it does not have any abutment support.
There is a photograph (not reproduced) showing it standing
as a ring with a large pile of building blocks on the top. In
this case the steel has to pass clear round, the bottom steel
being molded in the block and so as to be attached at the side
to the steel passing over the top.
Ques. — You do not carry the longitudinal re-enforcement
b>elow the springing line?
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 295
Ans. — I do not think it necessary where the blocks break
joints; it could be done if necessary just the same as at the
top joints. In case the sewer is not supported continuously,
it would, of course, be necessary to re-enforce it longitudinally.
I am assuming a sewer in an ordinary ditch.
Ques. — In making junctions of sewers, would you make
those junctions in concrete, or would you re-enforce them with
brick?
Ans. — I would use hard vitrified slants.
Ques. — I referred to larger sizes, the junction of main
sewers, particularly where there are large manholes.
Ans. — In that case you would set up short centres, and
bring the blocks up as nearly as possible, and then with stone
hammer do some trimming and fill in with mortar or concrete.
Ques. — By plastering inside?
Ans. — By having inside centering, and filling in from the
outside. You can make a much smoother job if you cover the
inside with paraffine building paper, because the paper will
peel off and leave a very smooth surface.
Ques. — Have you ever tried the zinc form?
Ans. — I have never used the metal covering, but I have
used a great deal of paper lining with great success, and it is
exceedingly cheap.
Ques. — To what extent do you excavate, to the bottom
line?
Ans. — The treatment is exactly the same as for a brick
sewer. As the sides are set they are backed up with gravel or
whatever dirt you have, the same as you would back up a ring
of brickwork.
Ques. — You would not get the same uniformity of support
as in monolithic construction, would you?
Ans. — Not quite, because in monolithic construction the
concrete is built against the earth. If you were in a position
where that were necessary, a thin concrete mixture could be
poured in behind the blocks as the work progresses so as to give
the same result.
Ques. — You frequently encounter materials you cannot
shape, do you not?
Ans. — Certainly; in that instance natural cement con-
crete can be used as a filling at the bottom, or even gravel, in-
ordinary cases, would be sufficient.
Ques. — I see a photograph of a 13 ft. 6-in. sewer; what
was the thickness?
296 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Ans. — It was supposed to be 12 in. at the crown and 15
in. at the springing line. There are arches standing in perfect
condition which are 12 in. at the crown and 9 in. at the springing
line in a ditch 20 ft. deep.
Ques. — How thick would you make the same thing in
brick?
Ans. — In the severer conditions I would not make it less
than 18 in. thick at the crown and 30 in. at the springing line.
Ques. — Then the thickness of your arch with re-enforced con-
crete would be about one-third what you would put in of brick?
Ans. — No; where it was less than 15 in. at the springing
line, it was caused by the side of the ditch pinching in, and the
side pressures were such that it was physically impossible, with
reasonable cost, to put it back, and there we substituted Port-
land cement for natural cement and let it go, and we haven't
had any traces of weakness.
Ques. (by Mr. Dorr). — In your block concrete con-
struction I understand the steel bars run down below the
springing line.
Ans. — Yes.
Ques. — And you grout those in?
Ans. — You grout them in with thin Portland mortar.
Ques. — How do you confine the mortar when you get
to the end of the sewer?
Ans. — It is confined by the earth backing. If the con-
tractor does not tamp and keep the dirt close up against the
block when he grouts it, some of the grout runs out behind,
and so it takes more grout to fill the joints. It is for the con-
tractor's interest to do the work well.
Ques. — You don't have to use any shell on the outside?
Ans. — A piece of metal could be placed behind the joint
and then withdrawn, to prevent danger of dirt getting into the
groove, or the blocks can be made so as to form a closed groove,
which will prevent leakage.
Ques. (by Mr. Bryant). — What is the relative difference
in cost of a 24-in. block sewer and a brick sewer?
Ans. — About one-half to two-thirds the cost of a brick
sewer.
Ques. (by Mr. Dorr). — Where you put in branches, you
would leave out the block?
Ans. — Simply leave out a half block, set your slant at a
proper angle or elevation, and bank it in with monolithic con-
crete, or mortar.
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 297
Ques. (by Mr. Brewer). — Are all the blocks molded in
an iron mold?
Ans. — Yes.
Ques. — The idea occurred to me that it might take a
good many molds to keep a big job going.
Ans. — No; the block is taken out of the mold immediately.
The concrete can be put in the mold so soft that it will quake,
but it is better to have it as wet as it can be without quaking.
Ques. (by Mr. Dorr). — These molds are made to take
apart ?
Ans. — They do not take apart; they are hinged. If you
will observe the photograph you will see that they are hinged
at one end and then locked. They open up like the blades of
shears, and the blocks are left standing on a bottom board.
Ques. — You generally mold them at the work?
Ans. — That would depend upon the economic conditions,
but get as near the work as you can.
Ques. (by Mr. Blodgett). — I noticed in one of these
photographs a large concrete sewer with a brick lining. What
was the idea of putting in a brick lining?
Ans. — That is very largely a concession to conservatism.
Ques. — I understand that you do not advocate the brick
lining?
Ans. — It depends on whether you have good men to do
concrete work; if you have, I would not use the bricks. But
if you strike a place where you can get good brickwork and
not skilled concrete men, you can get a better sewer by
putting in a brick lining, that is, if you have good shale
brick, but I would take my chances with a concrete sewer
sooner than I would with brick, other than vitrified brick.
Ques. (by Mr. Smith). — There is one question I would
like to ask about this concrete-steel construction. There is
but a very slight change in temperature in sewage, but in water,
or in water supplies, there is quite a marked change of tempera-
ture. Now, do you think that a concrete structure, for carrying
a water supply, for instance, an intake or force main, would
contract enough to produce transverse cracks?
Ans. — The coefficient of expansion of the concrete and
steel are almost identical, so there ought not to be difficulty.
Ques. — I am not talking about the sliding motion of
concrete on steel. I am talking about a continuous structure,
say two or three miles long. All I have read about have cracked
across the structure.
298 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Ans. — Where the structure is well embedded in the ground
there ought not to be difficulty in that way. In the case of
iron pipes, no provision need be made if the pipe is well embedded
in the ground, but if it is carried in the air, on trestle work, then
expansion joints must be used. I have seen a movement of
4 or 5 in. in iron pipes that are carried in that way.
Ques. — The construction of concrete conduits, both in
France and in this country, has developed transverse cracks
at regular intervals; and my question was if your longitudinal
re-enforcement was going to stop that.
Ans. — It might not on long ranges without the use of
expansion joints.
Ques. (by Mr. Bryant). — Did you ever see any pipes
coated with cement?
Ans. — I think I have not, but I have tried to protect
the upper ends of anchor bars of the Cleveland sewer inverts
where they were exposed to the weather all through the winter.
I tried painting them with cement, and found that two heavy
coats of neat cement would not last them more than through
the winter without coming off.
Ques. — Wouldn't the moisture affect it?
Ans. — In a month's time the cement had begun to peel
off by rusting underneath.
Ques. — Did you try white lead?
Ans. — No; simply painted them with cement, and in the
spring scraped off the worst of it.
Ques. (by Mr. Parker). — I would like to ask Mr. Parm-
ley if he has observed the influx of surface water into sewers
where there would be a head of 3 or 4 ft. of water.
Ans. — That is one of the objections to a monolithic sewer,
because, usually, when the structure is built the contractor's
pump is moved ahead and the ditch, back where the sewer is
completed, becomes subject to water pressure. In that case
before the concrete has had a chance to harden very much the
water comes against it and will sometimes force itself through
the concrete in the form of small streams.
Ques. — I assume there was no underdrain.
Ans. — There was no underdrain. Where trenching ma-
chine is used, a great deal of water is carried back by the buckets,
and dumped on the crown of the arch, and in that case the water
will almost invariably force its way through the arch.
Ques. — I assume that the condition is such that you are
not obliged to have underdrains.
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 299
Ans. — That is a matter of convenience. The trouble of
underdrains clogging up has deterred the contractors from
using them.
Ques. — I think you spoke of applying an outer coating
to the forms, — am I right about that?
Ans. — That is true of the Cleveland sewers, although it
is not in other cities where sewers have been built. In Cleve-
land practice the centers were covered with paraffine-treated
building paper of medium weight, and then a layer of Portland
cement mortar was kept against the paper in addition to the
concrete. The concrete came on immediately, so it bedded
into the soft mortar. It is to prevent the possibility of stones
going through. In other cases the paper lining, immediately
before the concrete is deposited against it, has been thoroughly
drenched by water and the concrete put on fairly soft. The
inside of the sewer is practically the same as when special mortar
lining is provided.
Ques. (by Mr. Smith). — The paper being on there rather
prevents what we call shovel tamping, does it not?
Ans. — To a certain extent. In such a case you would
want to use soft concrete, and you would get better work any-
how.
Ques. — Even with soft concrete, isn't it rather essential
that there should be this shovel tamping?
Ans. — I think not.
Ques. — Have you made any experiment as to the shrink-
age of that wet concrete ?
Ans. — We have only observed actual work constructed.
Ques. — You haven't made careful measurements, then?
Ans. — No.
Ques. — Did you have any instruments to observe the
deformation of that 42-in. pipe under that heavy load?
Ans. — It was built upon a plank platform, that is, it was
the most convenient place to locate it. As a weight was applied
to the section, of course the platform might sink somewhat as a
whole, so the use of an ordinary level was precluded. Chalk
marks were made at a point at the crown and at the bottom, at
the front and at the back, and then horizontal points at the
center, front and back. I then took a piece of wood an inch
square, with a screw in one end to make a steel bearing. At
the other end, by means of fine wire nails as guides to hold an
ordinary folding rule so it could be slid back and forth, and with
a fine line drawn on the wooden rod. the rule was slid out until
3oo ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
it came in contact with the chalk mark. In that way I could
very easily observe sixty-fourths of an inch. There wasn't that
much deflection, and there were no hair cracks produced by the
load.
Ques. (by Mr. Larned). — Can you reduce to the form
of percentage the quantity of water you used in what you term
wet concrete?
Ans. — It would be pretty hard to do it.
Ques. — Did you have any guide to go by, or did you
judge by appearance?
Ans. — I judged by appearance. One or two per cent,
would show in appearance.
Ques. — Would you expect to tell one per cent, by manipu-
lation ?
Ans. — I think possibly one could, that is, if the materials
were exactly the same, but the materials vary and the contractor
or workmen become expert and judge by picking up a handful
of the mixture.
Ques. — You speak of very wet concrete as being one that
will not quake?
Ans. — I meant very wet in monolithic work is concrete
softer than the quaking point.
Ques. — One that practically pours?
Ans. — Nearly pours. Some of the best sewer work I
have seen was built with concrete which was so soft that it
would flow.
Ques. — Then your invert construction was made with
perhaps a drier mixture?
Ans. — It was a drier mixture, although it was one that
quaked.
Ques. (by Mr. Smith). — Then there must be some reason
for making your concrete that you are to mold in blocks a
little drier.
Ans. — It is under conditions 'where you can do better
tamping than in monolithic work. When you put concrete
down in a ditch, it is removed from the close observation
of the inspector, and it is almost impossible to get workmen to
do as good tamping as if it were on the surface of the ground
where it could be inspected. With wet concrete this will not
cause serious damage, but with dry concrete it will. On the
other hand, in the case of molded blocks, it becomes more
nearly analogous to laboratory experiments, where laboratory
beams made with a dry concrete mixture give better results
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 301
usually than those of wet concrete. In a well-tamped block
with the concrete so wet as to almost quake, therefore, we have
about the same conditions that are obtained in the best labora-
tory work; that is, the conditions that give the greatest strength.
Ques. — Can you give us the percentage of water in that
case in which the concrete develops the greatest strength,
approximately ?
Ans. — Only in this way: The cement and the sand are
mixed first and then the water is added. Now, a certain amount
of water goes in with the stones, but the water including that
with the stones and sand would not be over about 8 to 10 per
cent.; it would be pretty near the same consistency used in
the laboratory for making sand briquettes.
Ques. (by Mr. Eddy). — You mix the mortar dry?
Ans. — Yes, rather dry.
Ques. — And put wet stone into the mortar and turn it
over ?
Ans. — Yes, and then the mortar clings to the stones.
Ques. (by Mr. Smith). — When you are making briquettes
to test tensile strength, the less water you use, providing you
use sufficient for crystallization of the cement, the stronger the
briquette will be, well tamped. Now, does the same hold true
with concrete?
Ans. — I don't know that I would agree with your first
statement. There are certain limits between which you get
the best results, and the more water you use and yet have the
concrete so it will stand hard tamping, the stronger will be the
result; but if you have the concrete so wet that it refuses to
be tamped, then you will not get so strong a result. Where
concrete is deposited in a large mass, wet concrete will give
greater density, because the cement will flow through and fill
the voids better.
Ques. (by Mr. Larned). — I would like to ask you if,
before the setting time of the Portland cement with this wet
mixture, you have noticed a tendency of a settlement of the
aggregate ?
Ans. — I never have. The arch must be carried absolutely
on the falsework.
Ques. — You misunderstand my question. I meant a
separation of the material. As I say, if you carry up 4 or 5 ft.
of side wall in a short space of time, before the Portland cement
has taken an initial set, have you ever noticed a tendency of
the stone and sand to separate?
3o2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Ans. — You might if you had a large surplus of water on
the top, but none usually that would affect the concrete as a
whole.
Ques. — I am led to ask that question because I have
somewhat decided views on the subject myself. While in New
York I visited the East River tunnel and saw the construction
of the steel lining and subsequent grouting. The men made
experiments with grout mixtures of i to 2, and 1 to 3, with
ordinary sand and also stone dust. They found it was impos-
sible to put in that construction with a 1 to 3 mixture, and they
reduced it to a 1 to 2 and afterwards 1 to ij, and finally used
stone dust. They found before the grout set that there was
a separation between the two, owing to a difference in specific
gravity.
Ans. — I catch your point. That is, a difference in the
specific gravity between cement and sand.
Ques. — Yes.
Ans. — That has no reference to ordinary concrete mixture.
Ques. — No; but I see no reason why it should not hold
good.
Ans. — Any person familiar with making brick mortar or
any kind of mortar, knows that what a mason calls a dead sand
settles to the bottom, which is a sand that has no sharpness, and
the grains are of uniform size ; the sand will drop to the bottom
very quickly; whereas, a sand well graded in size, a sharp sand,
does not have the tendency to settle in the mortar. Take, for
example, ground Indiana limestone with cement, in the propor-
tion of 4 to 1 , and make it as thin as cream, or as thin as pancake
batter, and while with a sand mixture it is difficult to keep the
sand from going to the bottom, with the ground limestone there
is no such trouble. Again, with ground marble, of high specific
gravity and density, there is a great deal of trouble.
Ques. That would tend to bear out, then, the experience
in the case of the East River tunnel?
Ans. — If you experience a thing of that kind, use a little
less water.
Ques. — Grout that has to be pumped through a force
pump has to be of about the right consistency, rather fluid?
Ans. — I should say the difference of result is determined
mostly by the character of the sand or the stone dust.
Ques. — Would that difference in the quality or character
of the sand influence you in fixing the amount of the water to
be used in concrete?
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 303
Ans. — In extreme cases, but you would not encounter that
difficulty with the ordinary concrete; with thin grout that has
to be pumped you very likely would.
Ques. — There is a general impression to the effect that the
concrete you describe as very wet, a fluid concrete, can be placed
without voids, but I have seen some notable exceptions, and
it is accounted for wholly in the act of placing it. Where the
concrete is dumped from a steel tray wheelbarrow there is a
natural separation between the mortar and stone, and where
there is no opportunity to roll out from it the stone will cling
to the wheelbarrow, and you will find the same voids in wet
concrete that you will find in comparatively dry concrete well
run.
Ans. — I agree with you entirely on that.
Ques. — I was impressed with that by a man telling me
about laying a re-enforced concrete floor. There was made a
special mixture to embed the steel re-enforcements, and in
order to secure a thorough bonding between the mortar and
steel, it was made pretty wet, and then filled with fine graded
concrete, and he told me some time after the frame was removed
that he ran his hand under one of the girders and it came down
filled with sand. Now, that in a way seems to bear out my
contention that the sand goes to the bottom and the cement
floats.
Ans. — I think there is no question but that that result
would be experienced in excessively wet grout or concrete,
either one, where you have a large surplus of water. The differ-
ence in specific gravity and fineness between the sand particles
and the cement particles would be very noticeable.
Ques. (by Mr. Parker). — I would like to ask Mr. Parm-
ley how small sewers have been built in monolithic work.
Ans. — About 4 ft. The objection to making them smaller
is almost entirely from the contractor's side. They say that in
a ditch where they have timber braces and cheek pieces, with
the thin side walls requred for a small sewer, it is a very
cramped place in which to work, and there is danger of a chunk
of clay falling into the side wall, through the carelessness of
some workman and making future troiible for the contractor.
These things cause him to object to it.
Ques. — You spoke of the joints in the block concrete. I
should think you would experience the same trouble in getting
them tight that they do in making the joints of a sewer pipe ; how
is that?
3o4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Ans. — In the case of sewer pipe with bell and spigot joint,
it is difficult to get the cement forced into the small annular
space, sometimes only an eighth of an inch wide. With the
block sewer the cement is not forced in a horizontal position
into thin crevices, but it is projected downward into a crevice
about an inch wide.
Ques. — Are your invert blocks so rabbeted that you put
the concrete in at the top?
Ans. — I prefer ordinarily not to rabbet the bottom block
at all, but to make a plain butt joint so the mortar will be forced
both upwards and downwards as the block is pushed into posi-
tion.
Ques. — Do you find that you can depend on workmen
to do that with sufficient skill?
Ans. — I think you can be more sure of it because it is
within the plain vision of the workmen. At the same time it
is where a man on the top can also see it.
The Chairman. — We have heard a great deal from the
engineers, and now perhaps it would be well to hear from the
contractors. Mr. Gow has had a good deal of experience, and
we shall be pleased to hear from him.
Mr. Gow. — Mr. President, I don't know but there is
something to be said on both sides of the question, and I think,
as a general rule, that what is of advantage to the contractor
in the matter of facilitating his work is also indirectly of ad-
vantage to the engineer. I think, too, there is justice in the
criticisms that contractors sometimes make of engineers, or at
least of some engineers, that too often they are guided by the
results of laboratory tests, a fact that is brought to my mind in re-
gard to the subject of wet concrete. It is true, of course, that
contractors as a rule do prefer wet concrete, and I think that at
times a proper consideration is not shown to their judgment in
that respect. There are several reasons why we do prefer wet
concrete from the practical standpoint. In the first place it is
almost impossible where the conditions are such that a large
amount of work is being done at one time to so control the
laborers in their operations as to get the results of mixing that
can be obtained in simple laboratory tests, and the result is,
that in the turning of the concrete, for instance, we often get
an accumulation of rich concrete in one part of the pile and the
separated stones around the edges, perhaps, and in putting it
into place it often happens at the last end of the batch there
will be several shovelfuls of stones thrown in. If the concrete
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 305
is wet, these stones can be rammed into and embedded in the
soft mortar; whereas, if we are compelled to use a dry mixture,
it is almost impossible to so manipulate the concrete as to obtain
a homogeneous mass. Then, too, in the case of thin walls,
and more particularly in the case of re-enforced concrete, where
the steel and re-enforcing bars are in the way, it is impossible
at times to properly spade the work and bring the mortar to
the surface. There is a tendency at the lower half of the ring
for the stone to gather against the forms, and unless the con-
crete is quite wet, the only way to bring the cement there is to
so spade the concrete as to flush the mortar to the front, or
rather push the stones back into the mortar, which is a difficult
matter with dry concrete in a narrow space. At the same time
we frequently find conservative engineers who stick to the old
rule, although I think most engineers are now given to the
opinion that wet concrete is better. Some years ago on the
construction of the old subway work, we had a rule for the guid-
ance of inspectors. The test of wetness of concrete was whether
or not the moisture appeared on the exterior faces of the form.
If it did, the concrete was too wet ; and we found that in order
to prevent this it was necessary to merely dampen the mixture,
which made it extremely hard to manipulate, especially if the
stones tended to gather in bunches, and the contractors at least
were unanimous in the opinion that if they were to be held to
strict accountability for homogeneous work, they should be
allowed a moderate amount of wetness. My own opinion is
that the best results are obtained by a mixture of about the
consistency of liver, something that will quake, a mortar that
will allow the stone to go into it.
I have had some experience with the construction of con-
crete sewers. In the construction of the East Boston tunnel
work, and also a portion of the Washington Street tunnel, it
was necessary for a greater part of its length to construct sewer
riders at the side walls or haunches, and for the most part this
construction was incorporated into and formed a part of one
of the walls. It was necessary to build a back wall that formed
the waterproofing surface, and usually the design was so drawn
that the sewer construction formed a part of this back wall.
Probably a greater amount of concrete was used than was
theoretically necessary, which was done for other reasons than
the mere design of the sewer.
There is a peculiar feature attaching to one case in State
Street in connection with the East Boston tunnel. An egg-
3o6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
shaped sewer, 3 ft. 3 in. by 2 ft. 2 in., was constructed for
a distance of approximately 1 500 ft., and it was necessary, on
account of the conditions and methods of operation, to con-
struct it in short sections, usually 16 ft., and oftentimes shorter
lengths. This necessitated a great many joinings which were
made in the usual manner of putting in roughing pieces and
taking them out afterwards. On inspecting the sewer at com-
pletion it was found that there were absolutely no cracks, it
being naturally expected in a structure of that sort, not re-
enforced either longitudinally or transversely, that there would
be some cracks from shrinkage. We found them in the tunnel
structure itself, which is of monolithic construction, and natu-
rally expected to find them in the sewer, but close inspections
revealed no such cracks.
The Chairman. — How long a section was that?
Mr. Gow. — That was pretty nearly 1 500 ft. It seemed
possible that shrinkage cracks would appear eventually, if not
at that time.
Speaking about some of the smaller sizes, we had occasion
recently, on La Grange Street, in connection with the Wash-
ington Street tunnel construction, to build a sewer there. The
conditions were such that the sewer design was of secondary
consideration, the space being so limited between the building
line and the back of the subway walls, and the design finally
adopted was a 36 by 18-in. structure, reinforced by rectangular
frames of strap iron surrounding the section and spaced 2 ft.
on centers. The matter of forms came up, and it seemed to be
quite a serious obstacle. The fact that the sewer was only
18 in. wide would necessitate, if wood was used, almost entirely
filling the space with forms, but in accordance with an idea of
Mr. Carson, chief engineer, we split an 18-in. Akron pipe, and
used one section for the invert and one section for the arch,
putting straight board sides between with a few braces, which
made a simple form, although the matter of expense of the
channel pipe in ordinary construction would be greater than
some other systems. I have often thought if occasion arose
where there was sufficient length of sewer of uniform section
to be built of concrete, that some form of steel centering sec-
tionally constructed could be used to great advantage. The
great trouble to my mind in putting in concrete, and especially
wet concrete, is the inability to get tight forms. I cannot con-
ceive how there can be much difficulty in getting good homo-
geneous concrete if it is put in moderately wet, provided the
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 307
grout, that is, the cement, does not leak out through the forms.
That is one of the greatest difficulties we have had with
concrete sewers, where the conditions have necessitated wet
concrete.
Mr. Parmley. — The use of a paper lining will prevent
that.
Mr. Gow. — We have tried paper liinng in exactly the
way you have referred to, but it has always seemed necessary
to spade the concrete, and in so doing the paper was invariably
cut in some way, a careless workman possibly dropping a sharp
tool on the center and cutting the paper. It is more customary
in this locality to use some kind of sheet iron covering, but it
occurred to me that a convenient steel form might be used, made
of angle iron ribs, bent to the required radius, or radii (if there
were more than one centre), and on that some thin sheet plate
iron bent, the plates being used in sections, say a section for
the bottom of the invert at the water line, one for each side of
the invert, and two sections, perhaps, for the arch; that is, a
minimum number of sections that could be lapped together and
fastened with some sort of button iron arrangement to the angle
or edge of the rib. The angle iron rib might be bolted at the
springing line to facilitate removal. The plates being thin,
they could be easily removed from the concrete, and the whole
form could be advanced successively through the other work, if
necessary. It would also require a minimum space on the
inside of the sewer to allow access to and from the different
parts of the work.
The principal advantage to the contractor of the use of
concrete in the place of brick has been the fact, as mentioned
before to-night, of the trouble with bricklayers. This trouble
does not rest so much with the bricklayers themselves as with
the prevailing conditions of the bricklayers' trade, which is
beginning to make the price exorbitant. If the contractor
has a long stretch of work on hand in a busy time of the year,
it is almost impossible oftentimes to obtain a sufficient number
of bricklayers to carry on the work at the rate of progress neces-
sary, and at such times the contractor cannot always command
the best class of labor. The good men always go to work first,
and the poorer men are left to the last, and are, therefore, the
only mechanics of that kind available. In that case you are
confronted on the one hand with the fact that the engineer
requires first-class work, and, on the other, with the inability
to get first-class mechanics to do it. We have had that expe-
3o8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
rience several times, and it is an unpleasant one. The fact that
the bricklayers' union prohibits the use of apprentices on sewer
work is rapidly narrowing the number of available men, so that
in a few years it would seem that with brick construction it will
be impossible to carry on very much work.
There was some mention made to-night in regard to the
placing of concrete against asphalt, and it reminded me of a
peculiar experiment we once tried in connection with making
centers water-tight. It was suggested we could get them tight
by covering them with asphalt. Our experience had always
been in putting asphalt on to concrete that it is impossible to
get a good bond between the asphalt and the concrete, even
though the concrete is thoroughly clean and dry; that is to say,
it is almost invariably the case that the asphalt can be torn up
in sheets, there being no bond between asphalt and concrete.
We tried some asphalt on the centers and put in concrete against
them, and on removing the centers, when the concrete had set,
the concrete adhered to the asphalt so that we drew out large
blocks of concrete with the centers. It appeared, therefore,
that asphalt applied to concrete would not bond, but concrete
applied to asphalt would bond. I have since seen it stated
that by cutting the asphalt with naphtha or some such material,
and painting it on first, getting a material that will adhere to
the concrete, the asphalt can be applied and made to bond.
The Chairman. — The city of Worcester has done more
or less concrete work, and Mr. Eddy, the superintendent of
sewers there, has some notes which may be of interest.
Mr. Eddy. — Mr. President, it is rather late to start with a
discussion of concrete sewers. We have dealt in Worcester
almost wholly with small sizes, almost entirely under 5 ft.
diameter. We have one interesting instance, however, of
the " obsolete " form of the stone sewer being built in connec-
tion with the present concrete type. Some twenty-five years
ago, a concrete invert was laid in a sewer 18 ft. wide and 13 ft.
high. I examined that sewer some little time ago and found
the concrete was in very good condition. It was made of natural
cement. It had worn somewhat rough, but I think it had not
worn to a depth of an inch, and my impression is that the wear
amounted to quite a little less than an inch. We have built
concrete sewers lately of monolithic construction without steel
re-enforcing down as low as 24-in. One of the chief points
which we make in getting good work is to use a very wet con-
crete and to use a fine stone. We started in by using the ordi-
USE OF CONCRETE IN SEWER CONSTRUCTION. 309
nary No. 1 crushed stone, or something corresponding with that,
but found it was too coarse for the thickness of the walls we
had to construct, and we now use entirely the No. 2, or what
would correspond to the size of chestnut coal. We mix the
sand and cement in a mortar bed, mix it pretty wet and shovel
it on to the stone, and then turn it, and it gives us a wet, homo-
geneous concrete, which has turned out very well. We, how-
ever, use underdrains in all sewer work, and insist on pumping
a considerable length of time after the concrete is put in place,
if the underdrain is to be discontinued.
In regard to cost, our work is all hand and day work, with
a minimum wage of $1.85 for eight hours. We find that the
concrete in the arch invariably costs more than in the invert,
undoubtedly due to the extra outside forms used. We find also
a great difference in the economy of the job whether the foreman
keeps his outside forms set true, or whether he places them hap-
hazard. In illustration of that, I noted where in one case the
concrete measured in the batch was 120 per cent, of the concrete
which the section actually called for. The foreman was whipped
into line, with the result that the next two sections gave us
87 per cent, of what the section called for, so it makes a good
deal of difference in this kind of work whether the forms are
out of position 2 or 3 in. or not. It is very easy for the foreman
to walk along the top of the trench and not see that the forms
are improperly set.
We have found as an average that our concrete, including
centers, costs about $7.55 a cubic yard in place, that is, with
hand mixing, and using crushed stone, which costs $1.75 per ton.
Mr. Worthington. — What cement went into that $7.55
mixture ?
Mr. Eddy. — It is Portland cement, and most of it was 1,
2 \ and 4 mixture.
3io ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE
PROBLEM IN OHIO.
By R. Winthrop Pratt, Member Boston Society of
Civil Engineers.
[Read before the Toledo Society of Engineers, April 21, 1905.]
At the risk of telling the members of this Society something
they already know, I am first going to give a brief account of
the general history and theory of Sewage Purification.
As long ago as the time of Moses, the subject of sewage
disposal was an important one. Under the law of Moses all un-
clean matters were to be carried outside the camp and burned.
The necessity for some such disposal as this, it is said, is fully
appreciated by those who have visited Eastern villages in the
present age and have seen the unremoved heaps of decomposing
and disease-producing filth.
But burning was not a practicable way of disposing of all
kinds of refuse, and therefore waste matters were committed
to earth (Deut. xxiii: 12, 13), which method of sewage disposal
has been continued in various forms up to the present day.
Even the wandering tribes in the early days were careful about
disposing of their refuse, in order not to pollute the streams and
springs which were used for water supply. This was a com-
paratively simple matter, as the wastes were small in quantity
and were largely solid rather than liquid in character.
With more modern civilization, the out-door closet, dry-
pail system and cesspool became the standard methods of dis-
posing of sewage, as they still are in the smaller villages of
to-day.
When, in the nineteenth century, public water supplies,
furnishing abundant quantities of water, became more common,
and the wastes of communities became greatly diluted, thus
creating the necessity for sewers, then the problem of sewage
disposal became much more difficult, at least with those com-
munities which, either through self-respect or through legal
restraint, were prevented from polluting the water courses of
the country; and methods of sewage purification, in the modern
sense, began to be worked out.
The Composition of Sewage.
Generally speaking, sewage is water, polluted principally
by organic, but also by inorganic, waste substances. An average
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 311
city sewage consists of 99.8 per cent, to 99.9 per cent, pure water
and 0.1 per cent, to 0.2 per cent. 'solid matter. Of this solid portion,
less than half is organic matter. The offensive matter in sewage
therefore amounts to only a small fraction of 1 per cent, of the
total weight of the sewage. But this small portion is largely in
solution, or is suspended in a finely divided state ; which fact is, at
least, a partial explanation of the difficulties of sewage purification.
The polluting substances are made up chiefly of urine,
fecal matter and the various kinds of household wastes, but fre-
quently there is a certain amount of manufacturing refuse
present; and if the sewer system is built on the combined
plan there will be at times also a large amount of rain water,
carrying with it street washings, sand and debris of various
kinds. The more complex the nature of the sewage, due to
either organic or inorganic matters, the more difficult it will be to
purify. Even the character of the water supply of the city has
sometimes an important bearing on the problem.
Chemically speaking, the organic contents of the sewage con-
sist of nitrogenous and carbonaceous substances. These sub-
stances, and especially the nitrogenous matters, are constantly
subjected to the action of enormous numbers of bacteria, tend-
ing to purify them, as described below.
Methods of Purification.
All practical processes for the thorough purification of
sewage depend, at least for their final stages, upon bacteria or
upon chemical changes induced by bacteria. These bacteria
are present in the sewage and also in the filtering material,
and their function is to break down the offensive organic
matter and to convert it, or to begin to convert it, into harmless
mineral matter. Pasteur divided them into two . classes —
aerobic and anaerobic. The aerobes work best when the sewage
is exposed to air, and produce oxidation; the anaerobes work
best without air and produce decomposition.
In the usual course of transition from organic matter to
mineral matter the anaerobes are, at first, the most active, and
decompose or break down the complex compounds into simpler
and more readily oxidizable compounds; while during the
latter part of this transition, the aerobes are most active and the
oxidizing or mineralizing process is completed. The anaerobes
pave the way, as it were, for the aerobes.
Sewage purification works should therefore, theoretically,
be so designed as to allow each class of bacteria to work at the
3i2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
proper time, and in the environments most suited to it. But in
actual practice there are conditions, relating, usually, to econ-
omy of construction and efficiency of operation, which may
warrant deviations from purely theoretical plans. The above
principle should, however, always be kept in mind.
The chief methods for purifying or partially purifying
sewage are broad irrigation, intermittent sand filtration, contact
beds, continuous or sprinkling filters, chemical precipitation,
septic tanks, sedimentation, and strainers of coarse material.
The first four are final or complete processes while the last four
are preliminary or partial processes. Sewage works almost
invariably include two or more of the above methods, — usually
a preliminary process, followed by one or perhaps two final
processes. With certain methods a preliminary treatment is
absolutely essential.
Methods of disposing of sewage by discharging it into large
bodies of water might, in a certain sense, be classed under sewage
purification. Such methods will not, however, be included in the
present discussion.
Final or Complete Processes.
Broad Irrigation. — This method is perhaps the oldest and
is also the most simple in principle. It consists in distributing
the sewage, by means of ditches, over ground which is usually
under cultivation or is devoted to grass or pasture land, the
sewage being absorbed by the soil and by the crops. Unless the
ground is exceptionally porous and thoroughly underdrained,
only a comparatively small amount of sewage per unit area, say
5 ooo to 15 000 gal. per acre per day, can be disposed of in this
manner. This means, in a rough way, that one acre has to be
provided for each 100 persons tributary to the sewers. When
the sewage is treated by chemical precipitation or other means
before being applied to the land, the rate of application may
be considerably higher.
A large area of land, within reasonable distance of a city or
town, must be available if this method is to be used; and in
operating such works considerable attendance is necessary. The
receipts from the sale of crops often largely offset the cost of
operation, but only in rare cases do sewage farms appear to be
operated at a profit. The variation in the capacity of the soil,
due to rainfall, causes serious fluctuations in the amount of sew-
age which can be disposed of and makes it necessary sometimes
to suspend the purification of the sewage in order to avoid
over-dosing the crops.
Fig. i. Alliance, Ohio; General View of Chemical Precipitation Works.
Fig. 2. Canton, Ohio; General View of Chemical Precipitation Works.
Fig. 3. East Cleveland, Ohio; View of Aerators with Effluent Well
in Background.
Fig. 4. East Cleveland, Ohio; General View of Sewage Purification Works,
Showing Air Ducts Leading to Primary and Secondary Filters.
Septic Tank on Right, Aerators on Left.
Fig. 5. Kenton, Ohio; View of Septic Tank, "Dosing Filters" and Upper Portion
of " Wave Beds."
Fig. 6. Kenton, Ohio; General View of "Wave Bed" System. Effluent is
Collected in Gutter Extending Across Lower Ends of these Beds.
Fig. 7. Boys' Industrial School, Lancaster, Ohio; General View of Filter Beds.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 313
The two largest sewage farms in the world are those at
Paris and Berlin where there are respectively 13 100 and 17 500
acres under irrigation. There are also several large ones in
England. The Berlin farm generally yields a profit each season,
but the Paris farm requires a large annual expenditure. It
should be remembered that the sewage of these as well as of
most European cities is more concentrated than American
sewage and hence is better adapted to this process.
Sewage irrigation in the arid portion of the western
United States has been successful because the rainfall is so
slight during most of the year that the ground and crops are
able to absorb large amounts of moisture. But here the purifi-
cation of the sewage has been secondary to the cultivation of
the land.
The effluent of a broad irrigation area as it flows from
the underdrains, or appears in the form of springs at some nearby
point, is, with favorable soil and a properly cared for plant,
as highly purified as any filtration process could make it. The
effluent from the sewage farms and especially from that at Paris
is said to be used by the attendants for drinking.
Under broad irrigation might be included sub-surface dis-
posal or the distribution of the sewage by means of underground
pipes, having open joints. This system, however, is only adapted
to private residences and very small communities.
Intermittent Sand Filtration. — This method is a modifica-
tion of, or an evolution from, broad irrigation. The process and
its fundamental theories were thoroughly worked out, and
the possibilities of its application made known to the world,
by the Massachusetts State Board of Health, in a series of ex-
periments, which are considered classical.
The principle of " nitrification " or oxidation, as applied
to sewage purification by filtration, was suggested in 1872 when-
E. Frankland stated that " a filter must not be considered as
merely a mechanical contrivance, the process carried on being
also chemical "; but it remained for the Massachusetts State
Board of Health to thoroughly explain this, and thus lay the
foundation for modern methods.
With intermittent sand filtration, the sewage is filtered
through specially prepared beds of sand 3 ft. to 5 ft. deep, at
rates of 50 000 to 150 000 or more gal. per acre per day, de-
pending largely upon the amount of suspended matter removed
by preliminary processes. This rate is much greater than those
possible with broad irrigation; hence the required area is pro-
3 14 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
portionately less. The sewage from 500 to 2 000 or more
people can be purified on one acre.
As suggested above, the purification is not effected simply by
the straining action obtained by passing the sewage through the
sand, but is due principally to the action of " nitrifying bacteria "
which live in the sand or which make their home there soon after
the filter bed is put in operation. These bacteria are aerobic
and must, therefore, be provided with an abundance of air, if
they are to do their most efficient work. For this reason, it is
essential that the sewage be applied to the filters, intermit-
tently or in "doses"; and the filter allowed to thoroughly
drain between the doses, so that the air can readily pass into
it. The size of the sand is, of course, also an important factor.
Intermittent sand filtration is the method used almost exclu-
sively in the Eastern States and it is also used in the Middle West
where proper material is available. The resulting effluent is highly
purified, and the simplicity of the process makes it very reliable.
Contact Beds. — The absence, or high cost, of sufficient
areas of land available for broad irrigation and of material
suitable for intermittent sand filtration, created the necessity
for some method which required relatively small areas, and with
which coarse material, such as coke, coal, slag or broken stone,
could be used for filtering medium. The contact bed was
therefore brought into use, in England, some ten years ago.
A contact bed consists essentially of a water-tight basin filled
with coarse material. After closing the outlet, the basin is
allowed to fill with sewage which remains in contact with the
material (coke, coal, slag, cinders or broken stone) long enough
for the bacteria living thereon to purify the. sewage. The con-
tact bed is then slowly drained. The bacterial action is similar
to that taking place in an intermittent sand filter, but the re-
sulting effluent, though usually not putrescible, is by no means as
well purified as a sand filter effluent.
Before being applied to contact beds the sewage is subjected
to some preliminary process in order to remove as much sus-
pended matter as possible and thus prevent the speedy filling of
the voids of the filter. Such clogging sometimes occurs, however,
and means a large item of expense in cleaning the material.
The rate of treatment varies from one to three fillings of
the bed or " contacts " per day — this being equivalent, on a
bed 3 ft. deep, to 330 000 to 1 000 000 gal. per acre per day.
Sprinkling or Continuous Filters. — These filters are of
quite recent date. Though used to a considerable extent in
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 315
England, there are, as yet, but two or three in this country.
In surface appearance, they resemble contact beds since both
are composed of similar coarse- material — the sprinkling filter
material, however, being sometimes larger. But the sprinkling
filters are usually deeper and the principle of operation is quite
different. Instead of completely filling the filter (as in the
case of the contact bed), the sewage is sprinkled or sprayed
evenly over the surface and allowed to continuously trickle
downward through the material for perhaps several days at a
time. The purifying bacteria establish themselves upon the
filtering material.
Rates as high as 2 000 000 to 3 000 000 gal. per acre
per day have been used. This is more than ten times the rate
possible with sand filters. The effluent produced compares
very favorably with contact bed effluent, though decidedly
inferior to a sand filter effluent. The chief objection to their
use in cold climates has been the liability of freezing of the
distributing devices; but it is quite possible that means will
be devised for overcoming present objections and that this
process will be used, with satisfaction, even in freezing weather.
Preliminary or Partial Processes.
Chemical Precipitation. — The treatment of sewage by chem-
icals has been in use for at least one hundred and fifty years
and many patents for chemical processes have been taken out, es-
pecially in England. At best this is only a process of clarifica-
tion rather than purification, and bacterial action takes no part
in it.
In chemical precipitation lime, copperas, or other chemicals
are added to the sewage and these decompose or react with
certain mineral constituents in the sewage (or rather in the
water of which the sewage is almost entirely made up) forming
a precipitate which, when allowed to settle out in properly
proportioned tanks, envelopes and drags down a large portion
of the suspended matters. But the offensive matters in solution
are only slightly affected by this process.
The total organic matter removed, including both that in
solution and in suspension, is 50 per cent, or 60 per cent. The
effluent is putrescible, and unless there is a large body of water
to receive it, further purification is necessary.
The cost of chemical precipitation is generally large in
comparison with other methods effecting the same amount of
purification. This high cost is due to the cost of the chemicals
3i6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
and to the necessity for handling and disposing of large amounts
of sludge.
The sewage from London, England, population 4 536 541,
is treated by chemical precipitation at the largest sewage works
in the world. The daily amount treated is 300 000 000 gal. and
the precipitated sludge amounts to 8 000 tons per day. Six
large vessels are used to convey this sludge out to sea. The
question of abandoning chemical precipitation at London,
however, and replacing it by septic tanks and contact beds,
is being strongly agitated.
Sedimentation. — Perhaps the simplest way of removing a
portion of the coarser and heavier suspended particles from
sewage is to pass it, after screening, through settling tanks
holding several hours' flow. The sedimentation taking place,
especially in the case of sewage containing street washings,
effects a partial clarification of the sewage and is a decided
advantage to whatever form of filtration may be used subse-
quently; 30 per cent, or more of the suspended matter may be
removed. The sludge deposited in the bottom of the tank may
be drawn off when necessary on to special areas or filters and
allowed to dry; or if the case warrants, it may be pressed
into cakes and burned or composted. The same effect is secured
by storing the sewage in a reservoir for certain periods, as is done
in certain small communities, where the sewage must be pumped,
but where continuous pumping is not feasible. The accumu-
lations in the bottom of such a reservoir, due to sedimentation,
are pumped out last and may be treated on separate filters.
The Septic Tank. — If the sludge or solid matter in the
bottom of a settling tank be allowed to remain there for a suf-
ficient period, it is attacked by anaerobic bacteria and changed,
to a greater or less extent, into liquid or gaseous forms,
thus reducing the amount of sludge to be handled. A tank
where this process takes place is called a septic tank.
The principal action therein, it is seen, is two-fold, — a
simple sedimentation and a liquification and gasification,
through bacterial agencies, of the matter deposited. In addi-
tion, however, there is a certain change in the character of the
suspended matter remaining in the sewage during its passage
through the tank, and also in the Soluble organic matter. The
total amount of organic matter, both soluble and suspended,
removed by this process may be as much as 40 per cent, or 50
per cent. In a general way, a septic tank should hold from
8 to 24 hr. flow.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 317
Another advantage of either a settling or septic tank, but
more especially the latter on account of its larger size, is, that an
equalization in the character of the sewage is effected and sub-
sequent final purification thus facilitated.
The question of covering a tank should be decided by
local conditions. Covers are not essential to septic action,
as was at first supposed, but they are very desirable if odors
from the tank would be any objection. It is also possible for the
sewage in uncovered tanks to freeze in winter ; but this depends
upon the winter temperature of the sewage, which in turn is
affected by the temperature of the water discharged into the
sewers. At Saratoga, N. Y., during a severe winter, the scum
on the surface of the sewage in covered tanks was frozen several
inches while some open tanks at Delaware, Ohio, were not
frozen. Saratoga has a surface water supply while Delaware
has a ground supply.
In actual practice, there have been factors which have
prevented the septic tank from being a success in all cases.
Chief among these have been, abnormal character of sewage;
incorrect design of tank, as regards inlet, outlet and depth; too
small a capacity; or too large a capacity. The first three faults
may cause the tank to quickly fill up while the last is apt to
decompose the sewage to such an extent that foul odors are
created; and also to prevent the sewage from being oxidized
in sand or other filters.
The widely varying results with the septic tank make it
a process only to be adopted, if at all, after careful study of all
the factors involved.
The popular opinion seems to be that the septic tank is a
complete method in itself. This is wrong. The septic tank
is meant to be simply a sludge destroyer and, to a certain
extent, a clarifier. The effluent is always ill-smelling and
putrescible.
Strainers. — The plan of passing crude sewage at high
rates through strainers of coarse material has been studied
experimentally by the Massachusetts State Board of Health
for some years, but few such strainers have been attempted in
actual practice. In a strainer, the action is purely mechanical,
and a deposit of organic matter quickly occurs at or near the
top so that the filtering material requires frequent cleaning and
replacing. With the present information, strainers appear to
be too expensive for general use but might be used economi-
cally in places where they could be made of coke or coal and
3i8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
where the clogged filtering material could be dried and used
for fuel.
The Best Method.
The question is often asked, What is the best method
of sewage purification? An answer to this question is im-
possible without first asking several others, such as, — For
what sized city? In what climate? What kind of sewage
system? What is the character of the sewage? What degree
of purification is desired? What materials are most avail-
able ? Where must the plant be located with reference to
habitation ?
If we should install one system for all cases we should
certainly meet with many failures and go to much needless
expense.
From the above descriptions of the various methods,
it will be seen that they have been worked out largely to meet
the requirements of different conditions ; and now that we have
all the processes at our command, the first duty of the engineer,
in making his recommendation for sewage purification works,
is to decide, after careful investigation, which of the processes
or combination of processes is best adapted for the case in
hand.
If by the " best method " is meant the method which will
give the greatest purification, then we may say that, aside from
broad irrigation, which is rarely desirable, intermittent sand
filtration, properly operated, will yield the finest effluent;
and therefore where the purified sewage must be discharged
into a stream used for water supply purposes, sand should
be used as a filtering material.
Even where a highly purified effluent is not essential,
if there is no great difference in the cost and if a favorable site
can be secured, intermittent sand filtration should be adopted.
The reliability and simplicity of operation of this system are
characteristics which make it especially to be desired.
In most cases, however, if the sewage is purified to a point
beyond the putrescible stage, so that it will cause no pollu-
tion of the stream, which is offensive to sight or smell, all
requirements of purification will be met. Where judgment
of the effluent by this " non-putrescible," standard is allowable,
and where the sewage is not extremely abnormal, then any
of the several different materials and methods may be used,
the choice in such cases being based upon available site and
cost of construction and operation.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 319
Value of Sewage as a Fertilizer.
When sewage can be applied to land which would otherwise
be unable to produce crops, on account of lack of moisture,
then the sewage has a decided fertilizing value; but such value
is due to the water in the sewage rather than to the nitrogen,
phosphates or other fertilizing ingredients. This is the case in
the arid regions of our Western States — especially in California,
where sewage is used for irrigation.
In the eastern part of this country and also in England
sewage is used to fertilize crops as described above under broad
irrigation; but the value of the crops rarely equals the cost of
applying the sewage and it is a question whether the crops
would not have been better if treated with pure water or not
watered at all.
Crops are grown on certain intermittent sand filter beds
in the eastern part of this country, and here the sewage has a
value in that it makes the sandy filtering material support the
growth of vegetables the sale of which helps pay for running
the plant. But such purification plants cannot be run at a
profit ; and furthermore the raising of crops reduces the capacity
of the sand for purifying sewage. The dried sludge scraped
from sand beds is rarely, if ever, used to advantage as a fer-
tilizer.
Chemically precipitated sludge, though containing, theo-
retically, valuable ingredients, has never been a source of
revenue, as far as I am able to determine; although the state-
ment is sometimes made before chemical precipitation plants are
installed, that the farmers will buy and haul away the sludge.
It rarely happens, however, that a farmer will haul it away unless
he is paid for doing so.
Many schemes have been suggested or tried, in the past,
for reclaiming certain substances from sewage for the purpose
of manufacturing commercial fertilizer and grease, and making
a profit upon the investment. One such scheme was proposed
but recently in Ohio. To show the fallacy of attempting
such a process, we have only to consider that i ooo ooo gal.
of sewage which, at ioo gal. per capita, represents the daily
discharge from 10 ooo people, contains only 2 to 3 tons of
solid matter. Of this amount of solid matter not more than
one ton is organic; and about one-half of this one ton is in
solution.
The cost of treating 1 000 000 gal. of sewage by evaporating
or reducing processes, for the purpose of reclaiming one ton of
320
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
fertilizing ingredients valued at $5 or $10, would clearly be
prohibitive.
The cost of obtaining fertilizer from those substances
which can be screened from the sewage would be less than the
above. But the actual output of a plant built for this purpose
would certainly not be sufficient to pay for operating unless
the sewage from many hundreds of thousands of people could
be used. It is the opinion of unprejudiced investigators that
such a scheme would not be feasible under any circumstances.
It surely would not effect any material purification in the sewage
as all offensive matters in solution would be allowed to pass on.
Status of the Problem in Ohio.
The first sewage purification plant in Ohio was the chemical
precipitation plant, built at Canton in 1893. In 1898 there were
7 plants in use by cities, villages and public institutions. At
the present time there are 32 in use. The methods employed
are shown in the accompanying table :
TABLE A.
Tabular Statement of the Methods Employed at the 32 Sewage Purifi-
cation Plants in use in Ohio, January, 1905.
(Of the 32 plants, 17 are Municipal and 15 Institutional.)
c
re
6
J, Ml
8.5
0 = .
re >>c
&=£
4
2,800
3*
5iOco
»t
15°
7
9»275
1
100
3
2,500
«t
500
6
13.S00
1
5, 000
2
16,000
1
4,500
1*
4>5oo
Preliminary Treatment (preceded by
screening in all but three cases).
Final Treatment.
None
Sedimentation (with continuous flow to
filters)
Sedimentation (followed by application
of sewage to filters by flush tanks)
Flush Tanks or Storage Reservoir
Septic Tank
Septic Tank
Septic Tank
Septic Tank
Septic Tank .
Chemical Precipitation
Chemical Precipitation
Chemical Precipitation
Intermittent Sand Filtration or similar
treatment.
Intermittent Sand Filtration or similar
treatment.
Intermittent Sand Filtration or similar
treatment.
Intermittent Sand Filtration or similar
treatment.
None.
Intermittent Sand Filtration.
Intermittent Filtration through Coke.
Contact Beds.
Continuous Filtration with forced aeration.
None.
Contact Beds followed by Intermittent
Sand Filtration.
Sewage discharged over land to creek.
* Oberlin is placed in two different classes.
t Includes Hardin Co. Infirmary subsoil plant.
J Includes " Wave Beds" at Kenton.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 321
Proposed plans for 30 more plants, nearly all municipal,
have been approved by the State Board of Health and, in ad-
dition, plans for several other cities, notably for Columbus,
are in course of preparation. When the Columbus plant is
in operation, about 275 000 people or 14 per cent, of the
urban population of the state, living in cities or villages of
4 000 or over, will be provided with sewage purification plants.
This does not include the people using institutional plants.
In order to compare these figures with the corresponding
figures for the entire country as worked out by Mr. George W.
Fuller, it may be said, that of an urban population of 22 600 000
which live in cities of 4 000 or over, located upon inland
streams or lakes, 1 100 000, or less than 5 per cent., live in cities
provided with sewage purification plants. It is evident, there-
fore, that Ohio is considerably in advance of most states,
along these lines.
The geological conditions in Ohio are such that sand or
gravel in sufficient quantities, and suitably located for inter-
mittent filtration areas, are rarely found. In regard to broad
irrigation, the price of land is too high in localities near the
cities, and furthermore, the rainfall in this state is such that the
ground has little capacity for absorbing sewage. Those proc-
esses, therefore, which require as little area and as little filtering
material as possible, have seemed most desirable. Chemical
precipitation works were built at first, but for the last 6 or 7
years, since the septic tank has become so popular, it has been
the usual practice to use such tanks as a preliminary process in
connection with coke, cinder or sand filters.
There are now in use 12 septic tanks, while plans for 25
more have been made. The success of these tanks during the
comparatively few years that they have been in operation, has
been varied; but in all cases it appears that they have served,
in a greater or less degree, to remove suspended matter from
the sewage and thus enable it to be treated more easily by filtra-
tion. In some cases, however, offensive odors have been created ;
and in one case the accumulation in the tank has been so great
that the expense of cleaning it out will be a serious factor.
Most of the tanks have, however, been fairly efficient as sludge
destroyers.
The contact bed has been used at 7 places, 6 of which are
provided with automatic apparatus. In only 2 of these cases,
however, has such apparatus operated successfully; but in 1
of the cases where the apparatus has failed to work, the amount
322 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
of sewage which required treatment has fortunately been so
small that considerable purification has been effected as the
sewage flowed continuously through the beds.
Although all plans for proposed sewage works must be
approved by the State Board of Health, the Board has not,
as yet, been able to make regular inspections of them after
they are built. This is unfortunate, as the principal cause of
their failure lies usually in poor operation rather than in poor
design. The average municipal official thinks that his duty
is performed when the construction of the plant is paid for.
This idea is due to several causes.
First: The constructing engineer, on finishing his work,
receives his pay and then leaves the plant entirely in unskilled
hands. Some cities have lately, however, made arrangements
to retain the constructing engineer for a period to insure the
proper starting of the plant.
Second: A plant is often installed as the result of a law-
suit and the chief object is to spend as little money as possible,
either for construction or maintenance.
Third: It is not fully realized that the character of the
sewage and other conditions are ever liable to change, and
that success at one time does not mean success at another,
unless the most intelligent and constant care is used.
Fourth: The idea that automatic regulating apparatus
can be left entirely without supervision. No apparatus has yet
been installed which does not require more or less frequent
inspection by some one who thoroughly understands it.
I would also point out here, that perhaps one of the funda-
mental reasons for the failure of sewage purification plants, as
well as for the poor character of some other engineering works,
is the fact that municipal officials, especially in the smaller cities,
are fast coming to regard the engineer as a " necessary evil "
or even as an unnecessary one. They fail to realize the impor-
tance of the work of the engineer, and therefore employ whoever
sets the lowest price on his services, regardless of his value.
When an engineer, for the sake of getting sewerage work,
makes his fee less than the work is worth, it is not probable
that he intends actually to lose money by the transaction;
consequently, he cannot afford to spend the proper amount of
time in preparing plans or inspecting construction, to say noth-
ing of looking after sewage purification works when completed.
If the city officials could be educated to appreciate the ad-
vantage of thorough and high class engineering, and be willing
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 323
to pay for it on the same plan on which reputable doctors and
lawyers are paid, there would be fewer unsatisfactory results.
Description of Some of the Principal Ohio Plants.
The following are brief descriptions of some of the largest
and most interesting Sewage Purification Plants in Ohio. These
and other plants are more fully described in the Annual Report
of the Ohio State Board of Health for 1903.
Alliance.
Estimated population, — 9 500.
Estimated population using sewers, — 4 000.
Sewerage system consists of 15 miles of sewers built
principally on the separate plan and having 1 000 connections.
Sewers are underdrained only to a small extent.
Quantity of Sewage. — Average flow of sewage is approxi-
mately 800 000 gal. per day, all of which is passed through the
purification plant.
Character of Sewage. — Principally domestic, but also con
tains the wastes from two large iron working factories and gas
works.
Date of installation of plant, — 1896.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Mahoning River ; dry weather
flow 3 cu. ft. per sec.
Method of Treatment. — Chemical precipitation. The pre-
cipitation tanks are 3 in number, each 80 by 40 and 6 ft. deep
and having a total capacity of 420 000 gal. or about 50 per cent,
of the average daily flow. About 1 350 lb. of lime are used each
24 hr. but this is not applied continuously. At the entrance to
the tanks the larger matters are screened out. The flow through
the tanks is continuous except when interrupted for cleaning,
which occurs two or three times a week for the first two tanks
and once a week for the last tank.
Results. — The plant is kept in operation throughout
the year, but is at present overworked and effects very little
purification of the sewage. The question of disposing of the
sludge is becoming a serious one, and it is fast accumulating
in heaps, near the plant. Odors from the plant have caused
numerous complaints.
Cost. — The cost of construction was about $22200.
Annual cost, maintenance is a little over $2 000; about half of
which is paid for salaries and half for fuel and lime.
324 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Canton.
Estimated population, — 32 500.
Estimated population using sewers, — 11 000.
Sewerage system consists of 34 miles of domestic sewers
having 2 144 connections. About a mile of the system is
underdrained.
Quantity of Sewage. — The average daily flow is about
2 500 000 gal. per day, all of which is passed through this puri-
fication plant.
Character of Sewage. — Domestic sewage mixed with a
large amount of ground water leakage.
Date of installation of plant. — 1893.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Nimishillen Creek ; dry weather
flow, 4 cu. ft. per sec.
Method of Treatment. — Chemical precipitation. Precipitation
tanks are 4 in number, each 50 by 100 by 5 ft. deep, having a
total capacity of 700 000 gal., or about 28 per cent, of the average
daily flow. About 1 050 lb. of lime are used each 24 hr. The
largest suspended particles are screened out before the sewage
enters the tanks. It is necessary to draw off the sludge from
the first two precipitation tanks three times a week and from
the last two once a week. The sludge is then pumped from
the sludge well on to neighboring fields and is occasionally
plowed into the ground. It was formerly pressed into cakes
but the quantity of sludge has outgrown the capacity of the
press.
Results. — The plant is kept in operation throughout the
year but is apparently out-grown; this being due in part to the
large amount of leakage into the sewer system. The amount of
lime used is sufficient for obtaining the best results and the stream
receiving the effluent is more or less polluted. The field on to
which the sludge is now being pumped is fast becoming over-
loaded and other means for sludge disposal are needed. The
occupants of the few houses near the plant are said to have
become accustomed to the odors from it.
Cost. — The first cost of the plant was $31 545 for which
$5 000 was paid for land. Annual cost of maintenance is $3 850
divided as follows; Three men $2 100, lime $550, fuel $600,
repairs, etc., $600.
Clyde.
Estimated population, — 2 600.
Estimated population using sewers, — 700.
Sewerage system consists of 3 miles of combined sewers
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 325
having about 125 house connections. A large portion of the
sewers were built for land drainage only.
Quantity of Sewage. — The approximate average dry weather
flow is 100 000 gal. per day; the maximum flow in wet weather
is several million gal. per day, most of which overflows into
the creek before reaching the disposal area.
Character of Sewage. — Domestic sewage, at times highly
diluted by storm water and ground water; formerly the wastes
from a sauerkraut factory and gas works were discharged into
the sewers.
Date of installation of plant, — 1898.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Raccoon Creek ; practically no
flow in dry weather.
Method of Treatment. — Intermittent filtration upon four
acres of very fine sandy clay divided into eight beds. At the
inlet to each bed is a shallow box 5 ft. by 10 ft. by 1 ft. for the
purpose of allowing some of the solid matters to settle out before
reaching the surface of the beds. The beds are underdrained
by lines of 4-in. pipe 16 ft. apart.
Results. — The plant is not used in winter. Four or five
different inspections of the plant have failed to show a satisfac-
tory effluent even when in use. This was due in part to lack of
care in cleaning the surface of the beds; but the sauerkraut
refuse, which consisted largely of strong brine, undoubtedly had
a detrimental effect upon the purification of the sewage and it
is very doubtful whether good purification could have been
obtained, even with the best of care, as long as this waste was
mixed with the sewage. The refuse from the gas works further
complicated the problem. The plant was a source of odors,
disagreeable to those living 1 000 ft. or more away.
It is interesting to note that the village brought suit against
the sauerkraut company for interfering with the proper operation
of the purification plant, and that the evidence at the prelimi-
nary hearing was so much in favor of the village that the sauer-
kraut company decided to make other disposition of its wates.
Cost. — Cost of the plant including land is $5 000. Amount
spent annually for its care is $250.
East Cleveland.
Estimated population, — 6 000.
Estimated population using sewers, — 5 000.
Sewerage system consists of 40 miles of pipe sewers having
1 005 connections. Sewers are designed to receive domestic
326 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
sewage only, and are generally provided with underdrains.
At some places in the city, storm sewers are laid in the same
trenches with and above the domestic sewers.
Quantity of Sewage. — Estimated average dry weather flow
is about 400 000 gal. per day, but this is increased by ground
water, due largely to the leakage from the storm water sewers
into the domestic sewers, to 1 400 000 gal. per day during cer-
tain periods. Sewage all passes through works.
Character of Sewage. — Strictly domestic ; diluted at times
by leakage into sewers.
Date of installation of plant. — 1899. Doubled in size and
septic tank added in 1901.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Small intermittent brook.
Method of Treatment. — Septic tank and forced aeration.
Plant designed according to theories first advanced by Waring.
Sewage flows by gravity into a receiving well from which it
is pumped into a septic tank holding 170000 gal. or 10 to
12 hr. dry weather flow. The septic tank effluent is then
treated as follows: First, by downward filtration or straining
through 8 primary filters having a total area of 0.11 acres and
containing 2.5 ft. of egg-sized slag; second, upward through
4 secondary filters having a total area of 0.055 acres and con-
taining 2.5 ft. of similar material; and third, downward through
two " aerators " or filters having total area of 0.46 acres con-
taining 4 ft. pea coke, covered with a 4-in. layer of sand.
The filters are all thoroughly underdrained by means of inverted
half tile with open joints placed close together, resting on con-
crete floors; air is forced continuously into the underdrains by
means of a blower located in the pumping station.
The filters are operated continuously for periods of from
three to ten days or until clogged.
Results. — As first built in 1899, when there was no septic
tank and when the fresh sewage was applied directly to the
primary filters, the result was to speedily clog these filters and
necessitate their being cleaned at large expense. It is said
that this result was due largely to the infiltration of storm water
containing large amounts of clay into the domestic sewers.
Since the enlargement of the works and the installation
of the septic tank, no thorough examination of the plant has
been made; but it is understood that it has been necessary to
wash the filtering material much less frequently than formerly,
and that the effluent from the works has been, during a large
portion of the time, clear and odorless.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 327
The septic tank, however, has given rise to offensive odors,
and the tank itself is filling up with sludge. When visited in
winter the surfaces of the aerators were frozen and they were
out of service; the sewage being passed through septic tanks
and primary and secondary filters only. It is said to be practi-
cably impossible to clean the surface of the aerators during
cold weather; but on account of the rapid rate of filtration,
these filters rapidly accumulate solid matter on their surfaces
and need frequent cleaning.
The disposing of the sludge accumulating in the receiving
well is also a serious factor.
Cost. — Land, $12 500
Receiving well, machinery and first unit, 20 700
Septic tank, second unit and boiler, 17 900
Engineering and patent rights, 5 192
Total, $56 292
The annual cost of operation, excluding capital charges,
is as follows :
Two engineers (one day and one night), $1 440
One extra laborer, 540
Fuel, 700
Repairs and extra help, 300
Total, $2 980
Glenville.
Estimated population, — 7 000.
Estimated population using sewers, — 4 500.
Sewerage system consists of 10.5 miles of domestic sewers
having 8 50 connections. The sewers are designed to receive
domestic sewage only, and are underdrained, but at one place
at least a certain amount of storm water enters them.
Quantity of Sewage. — Estimated average daily flow 300 000
gal. ; all of which is treated at purification works.
Character of Sewage. — Strictly domestic sewage, but diluted
at times with more or less storm water.
Date of installation of plant, — 1899.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Dugway Brook; dry weather
flow 2 or 3 cu. ft. per sec.
Method of Treatment. — Chemical precipitation. Precipita-
tion tanks are 4 in number, each being 30 ft. square and 7 ft.
deep. The total capacity is 160 000 gal. or 53 per cent, of
the average daily flow. About 420 lbs. of lime are used each
328 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
day, this being mixed with the sewage during the daytime only.
The sludge amounts to about 2.5 tons daily. It is pressed into
cakes and deposited upon the ground adjacent to the plant,
where large quantities of it are rapidly accumulating.
It was the original intention to treat the effluent from the
chemical precipitation tanks in contact beds and then in sand
filters. For this purpose two contact beds, each 64 by 127 ft.,
containing 2 ft. of coke breeze and 4 in. of gravel, together
with 4 sand filters, each one-fourth of an acre in area and
having 3 ft. of sand, were provided.
Restdts. — The chemical treatment, at least, is continued
throughout the year. Owing to the extremely fine material
(which, it is said, is due to lack of inspection at the time of
construction) in the sand filters, it was found that they required
much care, hence, the use of them has been abandoned.
Although the contact beds were provided with proper
gates for holding the sewage in the beds, these gates have not
been used and the sewage filters through continuously; the
beds acting simply as strainers. The resulting effluent from
the plant is not nitrified and has a musty odor ; but it contains
little suspended matter and produces little or no pollution in
the stream which receives it. It is said that no complaints
regarding odors have been made even by those living within 800
ft. of the plant.
Cost. — The cost of construction was $20 500 divided as
follows: $6 000 for building and machinery, $4 500 for tanks and
sludge well, $4 000 for filters. The cost of operation is about
$2 300 every year, consisting of $1 320 for two attendants,' $600
for lime, $380 for fuel and incidentals.
Kenton. (North District.)
Estimated population of entire city, — 8 000.
Estimated population using sewers which discharge at puri-
fication works, — 400.
Sewerage System. — The system which drains to the puri-
fication works, consists of a few miles of pipe sewers having
about 75 house connections. Storm water from 1 or 2 catch
basins is discharged into them.
Quantity of Sewage. — Estimated at 25 coo gal. per day.
Character of Sewage. — Domestic sewage diluted at times
with more or less storm water. No manufacturing wastes.
Date of installation of plant, — 1901.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Artificial ditch.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHTO. 329
Method of Treatment. — Septic tank followed by treatment
in dosing filters and " wave beds," this being a modification of
the Waring's forced aeration system.
The septic tank is 28 ft. by 16 ft. by 6 ft. holding 21 000
gal. or nearly 24 hr. flow. The dosing or " contact " filters
are flush tanks, 3 in number, each 5 ft. by 10 ft. in area, and 2 ft.
deep, and are filled with a mixture of charcoal, coke and pieces
of limestone from 0.5 in. to 3 in. in diameter. These dosing filters
receive the septic effluent continuously but are designed to dis-
charge it intermittently through automatic siphons on to " wave
beds."
The " wave beds " consist of 3 tanks 10 ft. wide and 100
ft. long, having a decided slope away from the dosing filters.
They contain a layer of pea coke 18 in. deep at the upper end
and 4 in. at the lower end, the coke being covered by a thin
layer of broken stone.
The automatic siphon is designed to discharge the contents
of a dosing filter into the upper end of the material in the wave
beds, so that the sewage will quickly flow through the 100 ft.
of material in the form of a " wave "; but without appearing at
the surface of the material. This action is intended to produce
thorough nitrification of the sewage.
Results. — The plant is kept in use at all times but the dosing
filters at times become clogged and the automatic siphon is apt
to discharge continuously on to the wave beds, and thus defeat
the principle on which such beds are designed. Several samples
of sewage and effluent have been analyzed and the results have
been quite varied. The effluent at one time was well nitrified;
but at another time, putrescible.
Cost. — The plant cost about $4 oco and the annual amount
paid for maintenance is about $50.
Boys' Industrial School at Lancaster.
Estimated population, — 1 000.
Estimated population using sewers, — 1 000.
Sewerage System. — Sewers receive domestic wastes from
all of the buildings, but no storm water.
Quantity of Sewage. — Average daily flow, 100 000 gal.; all
treated.
Character of Sewage. — Strictly domestic. Large quanti-
ties of laundry wastes are discharged on certain days. As the
water supply is obtained from deep wells, the temperature of
the sewage is fairly high in winter.
33o ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Date of installation of plant, — 1899.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Small brook.
Method of Treatment. — Intermittent sand nitration, pre-
ceded by a simple screening of the sewage. The sand beds
are 25 in number, all 43 ft. wide and varying in length from
60 to 100 ft., the total area being about 2 acres. The beds are
located in a narrow ravine which necessitated their being placed
in a row. The filtering material is 3.5 ft. in depth and is com-
posed of excellent quality of sand which was obtained for the
purpose by crushing sandstone, at a nearby quarry. One
main underdrain passes through the centers of all 25 beds and
each bed has three 4 in. lateral underdrains 10 ft. apart,
leading into the center drain.
Results. — The plant produces, apparently, an excellent
effluent at all times. The beds are well cared for, though the
best possible distribution over the surface is not always
obtained. It is said that, owing to the comparatively high
temperature of the sewage, the sand does not freeze in winter
although no precautions are taken against freezing. Objection-
able odors are rarely if ever created.
Cost. — Cost of the plant was $8 900; cost of maintenance,
if the value of the labor of the boys living at the institution
is included, amounts to $25 or $30 per month.
Mansfield.
Estimated population, — 20 000.
Estimated population using sewers, — 10 000.
Sewerage system consists of 25 miles of sewers — 60
per cent, on the combined plan and 40 per cent, for domestic
sewage only. Automatic overflow diverts a portion of the
storm flows direct to creek. System includes inverted siphon
1 600 ft. long.
Quantity of Sewage. — Average amount treated at works,
1 000 000 gal. per day.
Character of Sewage. — Domestic sewage considerably di-
luted with ground water and, at times, with storm water. No
manufacturing wastes.
Date of installation of plant, — 1902.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Rocky Fork ; dry weather flow
1 to 3 cu. ft. per sec.
Method of Treatment. — Septic tanks followed by contact
beds.
Portion of sewage discharges into pump well where it is
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 331
screened and then raised into septic tanks ; remainder of sewage
reaches septic tanks through inverted siphon. The pumping
station also contains a garbage crematory.
Septic tanks are four in number, each 50 ft. by 100 ft.
and 7 ft. deep, total capacity 1 000 000 gal. or 24 hr. flow. By
means of an automatic, movable weir, a constant rate of dis-
charge from the tanks is obtained. This causes a daily fluctua-
tion in the elevation of the surface of the sewage of about 6 in.
Effluent from septic tank is well aerated on its way to the contact
beds.
The contact beds are 5 in number. Each is filled with 5 ft.
of specially prepared cinders and has an area of .25 acres, making
the total area 1.25 acres. The 5 beds form a circle, each being
one sector. At the center of the circle is located the automatic
controlling apparatus.
For short periods during heavy rains or during the flushing
of sewers, the septic tank effluent is discharged directly into
the creek.
Results. — During their 3 years of service, the septic tanks
have accumulated only a few inches of solid matter at the bottom
and practically no scum on the surface. The contact beds have
not lost capacity to any noticeable extent and the effluent
has been clear, practically odorless and non-putrescible. No
objectionable odors have been caused by the plant. The
automatic controlling device has given great satisfaction and
the plant is kept in operation throughout the entire year except
that occasionally, as noted above, the septic tank effluent passes
directly to the creek.
Cost . — The cost of the plant was as follows :
Septic tank,
$17 700
Building,
12 500
Machinery (including crematory),
7 500
Filter beds,
18 800
Land,
6 650
Engineer's plans,
2 663
vSuperintendence of construction,
4 810
$70 623
The cost of operation is about $4 000 per year including
the cost of operating the garbage crematory. This amount in-
cludes the salaries of four men, fuel, supplies, etc.
332 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Massillon State (Insane) Hospital.
Estimated population, — i ooo.
Estimated population using sewers, — i ooo.
Sewerage System. — Sewage from all the buildings is collected
by a system of pipe sewers and conveyed through a io-in. main
to the storage reservoir, or flush tank.
Quantity of Sewage. — 100 ooo gal. per day.
Character of Sewage. — Strictly domestic.
Date of installation of plant, — 1899.
Stream receiving Effluent. — Small tributary of Tuscarawas
River.
Method of Treatment. — Intermittent sand filtration pre-
ceded by screening and storage in a flush tank. Broad irri-
gation used at times.
The storage reservoir or flush tank is 40 ft. by 15 ft. with
an average depth of 5.5 ft.; capacity 25 000 gal. or 25 per cent,
of the daily flow. Under the inlet to the tank is placed a basket
screen.
The filter beds are four in number, each 100 ft. square,
thus making a total area of about 1 acre. Each bed has 2 lines
of 4 in. underdrains 50 ft. apart. The filtering material is 4.5
in. depth and consists of sand and gravel from a nearby bank.
Adjacent to the beds are about 20 acres of grass land upon
which the sewage may be diverted when desired and disposed
of by broad irrigation.
Results. — As far as can be learned no objectionable odors
have been caused, and the plant is very successful both in winter
and summer. Chemical analysis has shown the effluent to be
well nitrified.
Cost. — The reservoir cost $1 055 and the filter beds $4 131.
The plant is cared for by the patients at the institution.
Oberlin.
Estimated population, — 5 000.
Estimated population using sewers, — 3 000.
Sewerage system consists of 10 miles of strictly domestic
sewers having 650 connections. Storm sewers and special
sewers for cellar drainage discharge directly into the creek.
Quantity of Sewage. — Average daily flow, 200000 gal.
All discharged at disposal works.
Character of Sewage. — Strictly domestic.
Date of installation of plant, — 1894.
SEWAGE PURIFICATION IN OHIO. 333
Stream receiving Effluent. — Plum Creek; small intermittent
stream, tributary to Black River.
Method of Treatment. — Broad irrigation, intermittent filtra-
tion and chemical precipitation.
The disposal area contains 1.75 acres ditched (but not under-
drained) for broad irrigation and 3.5 acres of beds designed for
intermittent filtration. The filtering material is simply the
natural sandy loam which covers the area. This material was
not moved except where necessary in grading and underdraining
the filter beds. A rough pit was used as a settling basin (later
as a septic tank) in which to retain the sewage for a short
while before applying it to the land.
From 1894 to about 1900, the works, as just described,
successfully purified all the sewage of the village (amounting
to 100 000 gal. per day or less). As the amount of sewage in-
creased, however, the filter beds as well as the broad irrigation
area became clogged so that the sewage overflowed into the
creek.
In order to avoid grossly polluting the creek, it was decided
to transform the filter beds into precipitation tanks. Accord-
ingly in the summers of 1902 and 1903, at which times the flow
was about 200 000 gal. per day, sulphate of alumina or alum, at
the rate of 100 lb. per day was introduced into the sewage by
means of an automatic device located in a manhole on the trunk
sewer.
In the summer of 1904, owing to the fact that the public
water supply was being softened by a newly installed softening
plant, the character of the sewage became such that lime and
sulphate of iron (or copperas) in economical quantities was
found to be effective in clarifying the sewage; whereas, previous
to the installation of the water softening plant the quantity of
chemicals necessary to produce clarification would have made
their use too expensive.
About 125 lb. of copperas and 150 lb. of lime are, there-
fore, daily mixed with the sev/age during the warmer nine
months of the year. The copperas is introduced into a lateral
sewer, near the upper end of the system, at the softening plant;
while the lime is introduced at a point nearer the outfall.
Results. — The works as originally laid out (about five
acres prepared to receive sewage) proved to be entirely too
small to treat more than 100 000 gal. of sewage per day.
The use of alum, or copperas and lime, as above described,
is said to have prevented gross pollution of the creek. During
334 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
cold weather, however, the untreated sewage has been allowed to
discharge directly into the stream.
The odors arising from this disposal area have caused
complaint on the part of persons living some i ooo ft. away.
Cost. — The original cost was $2490, of which $1500
was paid for the land. The annual cost of maintenance is
$250. At first this was paid for labor, but more recently it has
been used chiefly for chemicals.
The Columbus Sewage Testing Station.
At the present time, the most interesting feature in the
subject of sewage purification in Ohio is the Sewage Testing
Station at Columbus. But as accounts of this station have
already been published in the " Engineering News," " Engineer-
ing Record " and Ohio " Sanitary Bulletin," and as a complete
published report of the work at the station is expected later,
from the city officials, I will simply make a brief statement con-
cerning it.
The citizens of Columbus, having voted, in the fall of 1903,
to spend $1 200 000 in improving the city's sewerage system
and purifying the sewage, it was decided to spend $46 000,
or about 5 per cent, of the total amount, in determining the
best and cheapest method of sewage purification for Columbus,
under Columbus conditions as regards character of sewage,
design of sewer system, topography, available materials and
degree of purification required. Accordingly, the Sewage Test-
ing Station with its corps of 14 trained engineers, chemists and
bacteriologists was established in the early part of 1904 and
put in operation in August. The tests will cover a period of
one year. Some 45 experimental tanks and filters of different
types and containing all kinds of materials have been constructed
with these devices, all practical methods of sewage purifi-
cation will be tested and the character of Columbus sewage
studied. The results of these tests and observations will serve
as a basis of design for the future works.
In making these preliminary tests, the Columbus officials
are certainly solving the problem in a broad and rational way,
and it is to be hoped that other cities, when necessary, will
make correspondingly thorough examinations into local con-
ditions and best methods.
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 335
A WINTER VISIT TO SOME SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS IN OHIO,
WISCONSIN AND ILLINOIS.
By C.-E. A. Winslow, Member of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers.
[Read before the Sanitary Section of the Society, April 5, 1905.]
We must go west in order to learn the new things in sewage
purification. In New England the classic Lawrence experiments
of 1890 have firmly grounded our theory, and the mantle of
glacial drift makes our practice easy. Beyond the range of
the Appalachians all is changed. The character of sewages and
the available materials for treating them are alike different.
Old England rather than New England furnishes comparable
conditions and we find a general development of the newer
British processes through the Mississippi Valley. Even these
methods, however, prove not wholly suited to their new con-
ditions. Many of them are failures, on account of climate, on
account of varying sewages, on account of the political conditions
which make it difficult to secure efficient public service in Ameri-
can inunicipalities. No saying, however, is more true than that
" We learn by making mistakes." They are learning a great
deal in Ohio and Wisconsin and Illinois about the rapid methods
of sewage purification. Columbus is doing for such processes
what Lawrence did for sand filtration fifteen years ago. The
whole region is an inspiring one for the sanitarian to visit.
In a short trip through the Middle West during January of
the present year I had the opportunity of seeing some dozen sew-
age purification plants of various types under the most un-
favorable conditions of practical operation, and I have been
asked to tell you what I saw, in the hope that even such a
fragmentary report may help us to estimate the success of the
newer processes of sewage treatment in this country and their
promise for the future.
From the admirable report by R. W. Pratt on Ohio sewage
plants in 1903 it appears that there were then eleven sand filter
plants in the state of Ohio, with which no sort of preliminary
treatment was used. One was a subsurface system; one was
wholly, and two were partly, given up to broad irrigation. All
but three were small plants serving institutions, and the total
population connected with the eleven plants was only 2 1 000. One
of the best of these intermittent filters is that at the Ohio State
336 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Reformatory at Mansfield, 0. (Pratt, 1905). The sewage from a
population of six or seven hundred persons, amounting to 60 000
to 70 000 gal. per day, is discharged on seven small beds with a
total area of 1.1 acres. The beds are built of friable sandstone
taken from a cliff near by and crushed by the prisoners. The
effluent is said by the engineer of the State Board of Health to
be of good quality, but considerable trouble has been experi-
enced in keeping the beds clear in winter. They were originally
plowed with deep furrows 1.5 ft. high, and 4 ft. apart, but this
worked badly, as the available area was unduly decreased and
the beds froze. At the time of my visit small furrows 6 in. high
were giving poor results, the beds being half frozen and covered
with slush. Probably a judicious mean might prove more
favorable.
The only other intermittent filtration plant I saw in the
West illustrated the difficulties which attend this process where
ample areas of sand cannot be obtained. Oberlin, O. (Pratt,
1905), is a village of 5 000 inhabitants lying 30 miles west of the
city of Cleveland and 10 miles from the shore of Lake Erie.
The first sewers were constructed in 1892 and two years later
a field in the outskirts of the town was laid out for sewage dis-
posal. Six acres of fine sandy loam were available to receive
gravity flow, of which three acres and a half were underdrained
for intermittent filtration and an acre and three quarters merely
ditched for broad irrigation. Two settling basins, 3 ft.
deep and 10 ft. by 30 ft. in area, were constructed by exca-
vating pits and boarding up the sides, and from these the sewage
overflowed through distributing ditches on the beds. Sludge
from the pits was pumped out and dumped near by ; it amounted
to some 4 per cent, of the sewage treated. For some years the
plant worked well while the average flow of sewage remained
below 100 000 gal. per day. Since 1902, however, it has rapidly
increased, to some 250 000 gallons at the present time, and
the beds have become heavily overtaxed. In order to pre-
vent serious pollution of the creek below, the system has been
converted into a sort of chemical precipitation plant by a
process probably unique in the history of sewage purification.
During the warmer nine months of the year chemicals are dis-
charged into the main sewer of the town, about 125 lb. of ferrous
sulphate and 150 lb. of lime in the form of hydrate, by auto-
matic devices located respectively at the upper end and the
middle of the system; sedimentation takes place in the pits
and on the beds which are generally clogged and a considerable
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 337
nuisance is created. At the time of my visit in January no
chemicals were being used and the sewage was simply standing
on the beds and overflowing into the creek, turning the whole area
into a noxious swamp.
The reason for the failure of this Oberlin plant is, of course,
the absence of a sufficient area of land really suitable for in-
termittent filtration. In this respect it is fairly typical of gen-
eral conditions throughout the Middle West. Sand treatment
alone is inadequate over most of this great region; and it has
been necessary to seek some preliminary process which should
make possible filtration at more rapid rates. As in England,
chemical treatment first suggested itself for this purpose and a
number of plants have been installed, somewhat less crude than
the one just described. Glenville, 0.,has chemical treatment
preparatory to passage through the contact bed, and at Alliance,
0. (9 500 population), and Canton, O. (32 000 population),
chemical precipitation is the only method used. Both the
latter plants are said to be well operated and to yield fairly satis-
factory results (Pratt, 1905).
As in other localities, however, the disadvantages of the
chemical treatment have been made manifest. Poor effluents,
offensive sludge and costly operation prove almost inseparable
from this method. It was natural, therefore, that engineers
should turn their attention to some better method for remov-
ing suspended solids. It soon appeared that such a method
could be developed by the regulation of the anaerobic ripening
process which goes on in every cesspool. Such a preliminary
ripening liquefies a considerable portion of the solid material
in sewage. According to its advocates it does the work of
chemical precipitation without the cost of chemicals and with
a diminution of objectionable sludge. As championed by
Donald Cameron of Exeter, who gave it the picturesque
name of the " septic tank," this anaerobic process seemed
most promising; and nowhere has it been more cordially re-
ceived than in the Middle West. Indeed, there may almost be
said to be a cult of the septic tank in Illinois and Wisconsin. Even
in small towns where no system of sewage purification is really
essential the possession of a septic tank is a matter of municipal
pride; in some half dozen towns this is the only method of
treatment, the clarified effluent being discharged into the
nearest body of water without any attempt at nitrification.
I saw one such system at Highland Park, a lake shore suburb
of Chicago with a population of about 4 000. Two-thirds of the
338 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
village drains westward and the sewage from this region has
been treated for some years by the septic tank method. The
new tank which I saw in operation was put in by W. S. Shields
only three months ago, and takes a portion of the sewage from
the eastern part of the village along the lake front. Two other
outlets from this region discharge into the lake without treat-
ment. The tank is covered and underground and in somewhat
close proximity to the pumping station of the waterworks. At
the time of my visit its effluent contained considerable sus-
pended matter, but as the tank had been in operation for so short
a time and during cold weather it could not have attained its
normal condition. With regard to the wisdom of treating
sewage by the septic tank alone without a subsequent aerobic
process, I must confess myself somewhat skeptical. There
may be cases where raw sewage would cause a nuisance, while
the clarified septic effluent is sufficiently improved to do no
harm; but such a balance of conditions must be rare.
In general, of course, the septic tank treatment is only
used as a preliminary to intermittent or contact filtration , and
on these principles many admirable plants have been con-
structed and are in operation in the Middle West. Of the first
type I saw three good examples, one at Lake Forest, 111., and
two at Wauwatosa, Wis. The Lake Forest plant was designed
in 1902 by J. W. Alvord and W. S. Shields (Alvord, — ) to care
for a flow of 350 000 gal. a day. A population of 1 800 at that
time has now increased to about 3 000, and it is probable that the
plant is nearing its full capacity. It is beautifully located at the
bottom of a bluff on the shore of Lake Michigan. The sewage
first flows through an open brick septic tank protected from abrupt
temperature changes by a light brick structure and divided into
five compartments so arranged that by various combinations
the period of septic action may be adjusted to suit varying
conditions. (Fig. 1.) Mr. Alvord has pointed out the desirability
of so building tanks that the period of fermentation may be
altered with changes in temperature and in the volume and com-
position of the sewage; and most of his recent septic plants are
built upon this principle. The theory, upon which this practice
rests, is that a too brief period fails to remove a maximum of
solid material while over-prolonged septic action produces an ef-
fluent which is for some reason hard to nitrify. It is, unfortu-
nately, almost impossible to secure proper expert supervision of
sewage disposal under present conditions, and at all the plants
which I visited the operation of the " elastic tank " had been
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 339
practically abandoned and the whole available area was used
as a single tank.
At Lake Forest with a tank 35 ft. by 20 ft. in area and
8 ft. deep, and a capacity of 50 000 gal., this method of operation
gave a period of about four hours. One third of the tank back
of the first baffles was covered with a very heavy layer of frozen
scum while the rest of the tank showed only half an inch of light
scum. The effluent •from the tank which runs over an aerating
weir into a dosing chamber of 7 000 gal. capacity, appeared
to be a good septic sewage, dark colored and with onlv very
fine suspended particles. The tank has never been cleaned
out.
One important feature of the western sewage plants is the
general attempt to introduce automatic devices for regulating
flow and for dosing filter beds. The danger from the failure of
such devices is, of course, always considerable and they ab-
solutely require periodic expert supervision ; but by and large I
am inclined to think even a fair automatic device will prove as
reliable as the average city employee. The apparatus used at Lake
Forest for dosing the sand filters is an extremely ingenious one.
A float in the dosing chambers lifts a cannon ball in one of a
set of hollow wooden columns arranged in series, and at a
certain height the ball rolls through a trough from one column
to the next, in its passage striking a catch which opens an air
valve attached to one of ten bell syphons in the dosing cham-
ber. Each syphon discharges on one of the ten sand filters
which may thus be dosed in rotation. At the time of my visit
the automatic device had been purposely thrown out of gear
so that the sewage was flowing continuously upon one bed,
perhaps with the idea of preventing the surface from freezing.
The sand filters are each 3 200 sq. ft. in area, the total
area being three-fourths of an acre and the rate is therefore now
over 400 000 gal. per acre per day. The filtering material, the
natural beach sand of Lake Michigan, is quite fine, 85 per cent,
passing a sieve with 40 meshes to the inch, and 42 per cent,
passing a sieve with 60 meshes to the inch. The distributing
carriers used here and elsewhere by Messrs. Alvord and Shields
struck me as admirable, — for small beds superior, perhaps, to
those which are more common in the East. They are straight
or branched troughs made of two upright sides of 2 in. plank,
resting on a similar bottom plank with 3 in. square holes at the
base of the sides, spaced about 2 ft. apart. Like all distributing
devices their operation requires sufficient head to yield a
340 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
good gush of sewage; given this they should be perfectly
satisfactory.
With the dosing device deliberately thrown out of operation,
as I have mentioned, the Lake Forest plant was not doing wholly
satisfactory work. Sewage was standing several inches deep
on the one bed which could receive it, and the effluent as it flowed
off to the lake was dark colored and appeared imperfectly
purified.
A plant very similar to that at Lake Forest was built four
years ago by Alvord and Shields for the town of Wauwatosa,
Wis. (Alvord, — ). The population of the town is about 3 000,
but there are not more than 200 connections with the sewer
system, including a sanatorium, a pickle factory and a chemical
works. The flow is said to be about 100 000 gal. a day. The
sewage first enters a concrete septic tank sheltered as at Lake
Forest by a brick roof. The tank is approximately 15 ft. by
50 ft. by 10 ft. deep with a capacity of 40 000 gal. It was origi-
nally provided with three longitudinal partitions but the sewage
is now run straight through, giving a storage period of 10 hr.
At the time of my visit the first tenth of the tank behind the
first baffle bore 6 in. to 8 in. of very heavy scum, and a considera-
ble accumulation of sediment could be felt at the bottom. The
town engineer informed me that the tank must be cleaned
out twice a year, a quantity of combined scum and sludge equal
to half its capacity being removed by dipping out with pails
and by the use of a small rotary pump. The effluent appeared
like a good septic sewage, dark gray in color and with no large
particles.
The septic effluent should pass to a dosing chamber in a
separate small brick structure where it may be discharged on sand
beds by the same device in use at Lake Forest. (Fig. 3.) The beds
are 6 in number, 30 ft. by 60 ft., with a combined area of one-fourth
acre, thus giving a rate of 400 000 gal. The sand used is coarse
and the results obtained are said to be excellent. In cold weather,
however, it is the practice of the authorities to discharge the
septic effluent directly into Menominee Creek without filtration.
This has not been compelled by any failure of the plant, but is
done to avoid the expense of caring for the surface of the beds
during a season when the septic tank effluent will not produce a
serious nuisance in the river below. Like the use of storm
overflows such a custom does not commend itself to the sani-
tarian; but from the standpoint of the city engineer it may
be good economy.
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 341
In the same town is a larger plant of almost exactly simi-
lar construction (Shields, 1904), which shows what good results
can be obtained by careful and efficient operation. The Wau-
watosa County Institutions form a group of five buildings,
including two insane hospitals, an almshouse, a county hospital
and a home for dependent children. The total population is
about 35 00 and the water consumption, 400 000 gal. per day.
A chemical precipitation system was put in in 1888, the dosing
house and coagulating basin still remaining as its monument.
Then a septic tank alone was installed; but it proved un-
satisfactory, and about a year ago Mr. Shields built a new septic
tank and filter beds. It is planned to use the old tank as a
part of the septic system in the future, but at the time of my
visit the sewage was flowing only through the newer one. This
is 85 ft. long, 20 ft. wide and 8 ft. deep with a central longitudi-
nal partition and 3 concrete baffles. The first two compartments,
making up about a third of the tank, bore a thick frozen
scum raised by gas pressure 6 in. above the surface of the
liquid. At the outlet as it ran off over an aerating weir, the
effluent appeared a strong septic sewage still containing a
fair amount of suspended matter. The storage period under
present conditions appears to be 6 hr. With the addition of
the old septic tank, 8 ft. by 17 ft. by 54 ft., it would be in-
creased to 9 hr. Both tanks are of concrete, housed under low
brick buildings with gabled roofs.
From the septic tank the sewage flows through an in-
verted siphon to the filter beds which are located on the further
side of a small stream. The beds are eight in number, arranged
in two rows with a controlling house in the centre. (Fig. 2.) The
four corner beds are each 50 ft. by no ft. while the four centre
beds are 57.3 ft. by 55 ft., being shortened to provide room for
the distribution system. The latter is of the general pattern
described above, including a dosing chamber discharged by any
one of eight 15-in. syphons, each connected with one bed. The
rotation of the beds is controlled automatically by a cannon
ball device quite similar to that used at Lake Forest.
The filter beds are built up of 12 in. of coarse gravel, 12 in.
of fine gravel and 12 in. of coarse sand, and are underdrained by
four lines of 4-in. pipe. The carriers are of the usual type, two
straight troughs in each bed with 3 -in. square holes about 2 ft.
apart.
The plant is carefully supervised by the superintendent
of the institution, and was working in admirable shape when I
342 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
saw it. The siphons flush perhaps once every 35 min. in the
morning, every 45 min. in the afternoon, and once an hour
at night, so that each bed is dosed once in from 4 to 8 hrs. The
total area is about 1 acre for the 400 000 gal. treated.
In spite of severe weather in January the dose disappeared
in twenty minutes after its application; but at intervals it is
necessary to rest a bed for a few days by putting into the
cannon ball regulator a chute which shall shut out one of the
dosing siphons. The effluent from the plant as I saw it flowing
into the Menominee Creek was clear and well purified.
It is only rarely that such plants as those at Wauwatosa
can be installed in the West, for the use of larger communities,
since, even after preliminary septic treatment, the requisite
sand area is generally unobtainable. Hence, the newer English
types of filters have been frequently adopted; and we find the
septic tank and contact filter the most popular of all combina-
tions through Ohio and Iowa. A dozen systems of this type
are installed in these states, with an aggregate contributing
population of 60 000. Mansfield, O. (20 000), Marshalltown, la.
(11 000), Delaware, O., and Kenton, O. (each 8 000), are the
largest cities in this class.
The disposal system at Mansfield (Pratt, 1905), built by
Snow and Barbour, three years ago, is one of the most perfect of
this type as well as the largest. The town is a thriving farming
and manufacturing centre with a population of 20 000. About
half the inhabitants contribute sewage, the total amounting to
1 000 000 gal. per day. The purification works, about three-
fourths mile from the centre of the city, and with dwellings not
an eighth of a mile away, is as neat as a pin, from its well-kept
driveways and embankments to the spotless engine room
with a row of potted plants in the window. The sewage flows
by gravity to a sludge well from which it is raised by two 7 -in.
centrifugal pumps to the septic tanks. Both tanks and sludge
well are ventilated by connection with the stack from a Dixon
crematory in the pumping station which handles the city garbage,
amounting to 15 to 20 tons a day.
The septic tank is an arched concrete chamber covered by
an artificial mound, its presence being indicated only by the
manhole covers. It is built in four compartments, each 50 ft.
by 100 ft. and 7 ft. deep with a total capacity for the four of
1 000 000 gal. The sewage flows now through all in parallel,
the period of septic action being twenty-foiir hours. In the
three years of their operation these tanks have never been
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 343
cleaned and the superintendent informed me that not more
than 1 in. of sediment and 2 in. of light scum have ever formed.
Comparison with some of the tanks described above suggest
that perhaps the longer period of septic action has had some
share in these excellent results.
From the septic tanks the sewage flows over a series of
aerating steps (Fig. 4), and thence to the regulator house
■ situated in the center of a circular group of five contact beds.
The automatic dosing device, consists of two concentric iron
cylinders about 2 ft. in diameter, the outer one stationary and
pierced by five ports, one for each bed, the inner one revolv-
ing so as to bring its single influent port successively opposite
each of these five points of discharge. A float, regulated by
the height of sewage in whichever bed is filling, at a certain
height starts the inner cylinder, closes the outlet from the bed
next to be filled and opens the outlet of the bed which has stood
full since the last revolution. Each of the beds has an area of
one-fourth acre and is filled with one-eighth in. to one-half in.
cinders to a depth of 5 ft. The period of contact is about 45 hr.
and the rate of treatment 800 000 gal. per acre per day.
At the time of my visit the beds had been out of use for
two or three days during the process of cleaning out part of the
low level sewer system, as it was feared the silt might damage
them. The septic effluent was going straight to the nearby
stream. I was informed by the superintendent that this had
occurred only once or twice before during the operation of the
plant. The surface of the beds seemed in admirable condition
and the effluent of the plant, according to the analysis published
by Pratt (1905), is generally excellent.
I was somewhat unfortunate in my experience with contact
beds during my trip. Of five plants of this type, that at
Mansfield was temporarily out of operation on account of what
seem to me quite legitimate reasons. In two others the auto-
matic dosing devices were so frozen up that the beds were not
being dosed at all; and a fourth had been entirely abandoned
as a nuisance. Only one, that at East Cleveland (Pratt, 1905),
was running properly ; and this plant is of so peculiar a type that
it can hardly be said to operate on the contact plan at all. The
flow through three successive rows of slag beds is continuous
for a period of several days, air being supplied by forced aeration
on the Waring plan; but perhaps this plant may be considered
more nearly allied to the contact bed than to any other system.
East Cleveland is a town of 6 000 inhabitants lving near the
344 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
shore of Lake Erie, just east of the city of Cleveland. The larger
part of this population contributes sewage, the total amounting
to some 400 000 gal. It is said that this amount is trebled by leak-
age and surface drainage at certain times of year. At the dis-
posal area the sewage flows first to an open receiving well where a
considerable amount of solid matter settles out, the accumulated
sludge being pumped out twice a week, mixed with lime and
dumped on land near by. The supernatant sewage is pumped
from the well to a septic tank, 87 ft. by 24 ft. and 11 ft. deep,
covered by a wooden pitched roof. The period of septic action
is 10 hr. or less. Pratt (1905) states that after a year's opera-
tion about a foot of sludge was taken from this tank. At the
time of my visit a heavy cheesy scum, 6 in. in thickness, covered
the whole tank and the effluent was markedly turbid. It may
be that the period of septic action is too short or that the storm
water brings in material not easy to handle; but certainly
this tank seems much less successful than others. No problem
in sewage disposal is more puzzling than the question why one
septic tank succeeds and another fails. Mr. Alvord (1902)
strongly maintains that tanks which are too large as well as
tanks which are too small tend to fill up, and considers 4 to 8
hr. a proper fermentation period. Shields (1904), on the
other hand, recommends that septic tanks should have a capac-
ity of not less than three-fourths of the daily flow.
Certain English experiments seem to indicate that a variation
from 12 to 48 hr. makes little difference. It is a priori difficult
to understand why long periods of septic action should increase
sludge deposits. If flow is so rapid that solid particles have
not time to settle out or if accumulation of sludge goes on faster
than its dissolution, bad results may follow. But with slow
flows the processes of liquefaction should have the best chance to
do their maximum work, and sludge ought not to accumulate;
although here the possibility must be recognized of septic
changes in the sewage itself which may be inimical to bacterial
action in later processes.
From the septic tank the sewage at East Cleveland flows
through three sets of beds filled with 2.5 ft. of coarse slag, of
egg-coal size, passing downward through the first, upward
through the second and downward through the third. Air
is forced into the spaces under each bed by aerators shown in
the figure. (Fig. 5.) With the aid of this aeration it was hoped
that some of the organic matter could be nitrified and the rest
strained out by the slag and finally oxidized by allowing the
Fig. i. Interior of Septic Tank at Lake Forest. In Foreground
Lateral Trough for Combining Various Compartments.
In Background Automatic Diversion Chamber.
(After Alvord.)
Fig. 2. Sand Beds and Regulator House, Wauwatosa County Institutions.
Fig. 3. Automatic Ball-Controlled Device Operating Six Intermittent
Filtration Beds at Wauwatosa, Wis. View taken Four Minutes
after Discharge in Diversion Chamber. Dose, 6000 Gal.
(After Alvorrl.)
* £r*
't ■■ :
- i
Fig. 4. Mansfield Aerating Device.
Fig. 5. East Cleveland Pumping Station, with Runway for Sludge from
Well, Septic Tank House (on Right), and Filters of
Stone with Aerating Devices.
Fig. 6. First and Second Contact Beds and Regulator Houses at Glencoe.
Fig. 7.
First and Second Contact Beds, with Septic Tank in
Background at Left, at Westerville.
Fig. 8. West Allis Aerobic Filter.
(After Shields.)
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 345
beds to stand empty for a period at frequent intervals. At
present each filter is run for three days and then rested for the
same period. The plant is said to give good results in summer,
but at the time of my visit it was noticeably offensive in odor,
and the effluent was turbid and imperfectly purified. The use
of forced aeration seems a doubtful expedient in sewage puri-
fication when one considers the large amount of oxygen con-
sumed by sewage in a trickling filter, for example, and the
impossibility of supplying such an amount by any practicable
mechanical system. The use of the beds for continuous three-
day periods also seems unwise. The total filter area of half an
acre, if laid out in contact beds somewhat deeper than those
now in use and operated in the usual manner, should be able
easily to handle the flow of 400 000 gal. daily.
A short distance north of the East Cleveland plant a smaller
contact system is installed at the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern Railroad Car Shops in the thickly settled portion of
the village of Collinwood (Pratt, 1905). The sewage of 500
operatives flows to a pump well from which it is automatically
raised at intervals by a pump driven by compressed air and
discharged into two septic tanks, each 21 ft. by 10 ft. by 9 ft.
deep, with a capacity of 25 000 gal. When the sewage in
the septic tanks reaches a height of 8 ft. they are supposed
automatically to discharge the upper 2.5 ft. into four contact
beds, concrete basins, each 15 ft. by 29 ft., filled with 5 ft. of
2-in. limestone. On filling, the beds discharge through siphons.
The plant is a neat and compact structure with brick walls
and plank covering and is supposed to operate entirely with-
out supervision. At the time of my visit all the automatic
devices were frozen, the pump was not working, the septic
tank contained a thin but foul stagnant liquor and the sewage
was apparently flowing off through a by -pass. Such must in-
fallibly prove the fate of automatic devices if their auto-
maticity is construed literally and they are left entirely without
supervision.
The fourth contact filter which I visited was at Glencoe,
111., a suburb of Chicago lying on the northern lake shore between
Highland Park and Evanston. It has a population of 1 500,
about two-thirds contributing sewage to the system. The
Cameron Septic Tank Co., installed a plant some three years
ago consisting of a septic tank and double contact beds. Like
that at Lake Forest it is located on the shore of the lake and
hidden from the town by a high bluff, but in general appearance
346 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
the plant is sufficiently attractive to be displayed rather than
hidden. It consists of a covered concrete tank some 80 ft.
long and 10 ft. wide, a set of four primary contact beds with
a combined area of about 1 200 sq. ft. and a similar battery
of secondary contact beds at a level about 4 ft. lower. On the
lower beds are two neat brick regulator houses which contain
a complex arrangement of floats and cranks for the automatic
control of the beds. (Fig. 6.) The material in the beds is said
to be slag, but on the half frozen surface there seemed to be a
considerable admixture of rather fine gravel and cinders.
According to the City Clerk, the plant worked well for a time,
but gradually became a nuisance to the neighborhood, being
offensive all through 1904. Last fall the beds became so
clogged as to overflow continuously and the plant was aban-
doned, the sewage being discharged directly into the lake.
I am inclined to think that the conditions in these last
two plants are due to difficulties inherent in the contact system
of sewage purification as applied to small plants. The process
is a complex one involving successive aerobic and anaerobic
fermentations which must be delicately adjusted. With the
lack of supervision which is almost inevitable in a small disposal
system, automatic devices will fail and filters will be thrown
out of operation or overdosed so as to cause clogging. The
slow sand filter and the trickling filter, being simpler in theory
and easier of regulation in practice, are much better fitted for
installations liable to be left to themselves for days and weeks
at a time.
A plant with a sufficient excess of capacity may, of course,
give fair results even when neglected; and a good example of
this is furnished by the system at Westerville, O. This village,
a few miles northwest of Columbus, has 1 500 inhabitants
but not more than 100 persons are connected. The daily flow
is from 20 000 to 25 000 gal. and includes the waste from a
creamery, which introduces a large amount of refractory organic
matter from the washings of the cans. The sewage first flows
through a pair of septic tanks, each 8 ft. by 26 ft. in area and 8 ft.
deep, with a combined capacity of about one day's flow. The
tanks are of concrete, covered with planking, and appear to do
good work, the sewage as it enters being strong and turbid, the
effluent clear and free from suspended matters. On leaving the
tank the effluent passes through an aerating chamber in which it
flows over three iron discs of successively increasing size, the
lowest being 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter. It is then passed through
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 347
six primary contact beds, each with an effective area of 0.021
acre, containing 3 ft. of screened cinders, one-eighth in. to 1 in. in
diameter, and finally through two secondary filters, each 13 ft. sq.
at the bottom and 3 1 ft. sq. at the top, containing 6 ft. of cinders.
(Fig. 7.) The primary beds are dosed by two devices, each
of which consists of a perforated bowl resting ball-and-socket
fashion in an upright influent pipe and overflowing through
three trough -like arms to the various beds. At the time of my
visit the devices were out of order and the sewage was trickling
continuously on four of the beds, forming a pool on the surface
6 ft. in diameter which an abundant growth of Leptomitus shows
to be fairly permanent. Pratt (1905) in his description of these
beds notes the same conditions. The primary beds should be
discharged on the secondary beds by siphons, each one operated
by the height of sewage in the adjoining bed. These devices too
were inoperative and sewage was steadily dribbling on, so that
both sets of beds were working like trickling filters, but, of course,
with the most incomplete sort of distribution. The pools on the
upper filters were somewhat offensive and the odor of the plant
was noticeable several hundred feet away. The effluent stand-
ing on the secondary beds was much less disagreeable and the
final effluent below the plant, clear and odorless. With such a
low rate of filtration (200 000 gal. per acre per day on each set
of beds), even this neglected system was yielding fair results.
In actual operation the Westerville plant was acting
like an imperfect sort of trickling filter; but there are bona
fide systems of this type in the Western States which are of
very special interest. The largest trickling filter, I believe, is
the one which handles the sewage of the 20 000 people of Madi-
son. I did not see this, but I found a smaller plant installed at
the car-shops of the Allis-Chalmers Co. at West Allis, just out
of Milwaukee. This plant, designed by Mr. Shields in 1902 to
care for 80 000 gal. of sewage per day from the large factory
in which 3 500 men are employed, is located on a hillside behind
the works and consists of a concrete septic tank and anaerobic
filter covered with a gabled roof and a trickling filter under a
second roof and at a lower level. The open septic tank is
divided by a central partition into two long tanks, each 10 ft. by
58 ft. and 7.5 ft. deep, the total capacity being 65 000 gal. or 18 hr.
flow. Below the tank the sewage is aerated by fall over a weir and
some steps and then enters the anaerobic filter, so called, which
is practically a second septic tank, 21 ft. by 33 ft. long and 7.5 ft.
deep, filled with clinker and cinders in graded layers. After
348 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
flowing upward through this tank the sewage passes to three
3 ft. by 5 ft. siphon chambers which discharge it on the trickling
filter below. This filter is practically a pile of cinders and
clinker, varying from 0.25 in. to 0.75 in. in diameter held together
by larger clinkers on the outside, piled with a slight batter. The
height of the heap is 7.5 ft. to 8 ft., its superficial area, 30 ft. by
54 ft., and the concrete floor upon which it rests is 40 ft. by 60 ft.
Considerable trouble has been experienced from disintegration of
the clinkers. In winter, as I saw it, the sides of the filter were
closed in by plank walls ; but in warm weather the whole is open.
(Fig. 8.) The distribution system is very simple, consisting of
three 12 in. plank troughs with 4 in. lateral troughs in the
bottom of which 0.25 in. slits are cut at a distance of 8 in.
apart. Each siphon discharge floods one main trough with its
laterals, and the distribution as I saw it appeared satisfactory.
The general design of this plant seems admirable, the only
part of it to which I should take serious exception being the
anaerobic filter. According to the designer (Shields, 1904) its
object is "to produce conditions under which the facultative
bacteria can do their work and prepare the effluent for more
rapid nitrification in the aerobic filter." An action of this
sort is very hypothetical. We have little proof that septic
action favors subsequent nitrification aside from the removal
of suspended solids and some evidence that if prolonged it may
seriously hinder it. Furthermore, filling up a septic tank with
stone makes the difficulty of cleaning so serious that the extra
straining capacity is dearly bought.
Mr. Shields states that the actual flow of sewage at the
plant has been much greater than that for which it was designed,
reaching a rate of over 300 000 gal. per 24 hr. for 12 hr. of the
day. No trouble has been experienced from freezing, and the
trickling filter has been operated at a rate of over 3 000 000
gal. per acre per day, yielding a bright and odorless effluent.
It appeared evident, however, on my visit that the applied
sewage is of unusual character, being mainly clear wash water
from boilers and manufacturing processes with fragments of
fecal matter floating in it only here and there. Furthermore, its
temperature is raised by the spent steam to 700 and over at
times. In the trickling filter house the air was wet and steamy
but without any of the offensive odor of ordinary sewage.
For results of general significance on the applicability of
trickling filters we must turn to the Columbus experiments.
We are all familiar with the inception of these most important
Fig. 9. Columbus Testing Station. Sprinkling Filter.
■
»^ -^^^^— . _ --J
Fig. 10. Columbus Testing Station. Filter House with
Laboratory Beyond.
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 349
investigations. In the fall of 1903 the city appropriated $1-
200 000 for the improvement of its sewerage system and the puri-
fication of its sewage, and the authorities were sufficiently far-
sighted to devote $46 000 of the money to a preliminary study
of the methods of disposal best suited to the local conditions.
An admirable experiment station was designed and a corps of
fourteen experts under the direction of Messrs. Hering and Fuller
began work Aug. 16, 1904. It includes a laboratory, one set of
open tanks for preliminary treatment and three sets of filters, with
a gallery under a frame covering, for each set. (Fig. 10.) The
sewage, amounting to some 350 000 gal. per day, is raised by
a centrifugal pump to a screen chamber in which it passes
through two movable screens of three-eighths in. diagonal wire
mesh. Next it passes to one of the tanks for preliminary
treatment. These are seven in number, each 40 ft. by 8 ft. and
8 ft. deep at the upper end and 9 ft. deep at the lower end,
built of wood lined with galvanized iron. The first twor tanks are
called grit chambers, the sewage flowing through in about
1.5 hr., and these tanks are used as a preliminary to all the
other processes. The other five tanks are either " plain sedi-
mentation " or septic tanks, in which the sewage remains 8
hr. or more, the difference being that the former are emptied
and cleaned whenever septic action begins, while the latter
have not so far been cleaned. In the septic tanks periods of
8,16 and 24 hr. are under comparison.
The sewage after treatment by one of these three pre-
liminary processes (grit chamber, plain sedimentation basin
or septic tank) is finally purified by treatment in one or more
of thirty-five experimental filters. These are cypress tanks 6 ft.
deep; one is 10 ft. in diameter, four 12 ft. 10.75 in- in diameter
and thirty 7.5 ft. in diameter. They are all open filters and
arranged for the most part in two blocks of two rows each with
a covered dosing and sampling gallery between the rows,
in which all the engineering details of operation are regulated
with the greatest accuracy. Twenty-one are intermittent
sand filters, 2 primary and 4 secondary contact beds of broken
limestone, 2 coke strainers and 5 trickling filters. With this
splendid plant the widest possible series of combinations can be
tried, including sand filters, trickling filters and contact beds
alone, either of these preceded by plain sedimentation or septic
treatment and sand filters preceded by contact or trickling
filters.
One of the most striking points about this plant is the
350 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
considerable amount of solid matter which it has been found
necessary to remove. First, the sewage is screened where it is
pumped out from the sewer; next it passes through two screens of
three-eighths in. mesh in the screen chamber; next it settles for an
hour and a half in the grit chambers. All the sewage without
exception is purified to this extent before its regular treatment
begins. I was told that in the sedimentation tanks 2.5 tons
of sludge collected per million gallons of sewage treated,
while in the septic tanks only half this amount had accumulated
with no surface scum. In the second place I was struck with
the marked success of the aerobic processes. Sand filters
were operating well at rates well above 500 000 gal. ; but the
thing that interested me most was to see the trickling filter
doing good work under most adverse conditions. These tanks
are dosed by a spray from an ingenious sprinkler head designed
at the station, and while more than a foot of ice had formed
round the edges of the beds the area within reach of the spray
was kept free and in good condition by the warmth of the sewage.
(Fig- 9-)
The report which we may expect from Mr. G. A. Johnson
and his associates at the station sometime next autumn will
be awaited with the keenest interest. If, as seems probable, it
should recommend one of the newer processes of purification,
treatment on trickling beds, for example, it will mark an epoch in
American practice. Its greatest significance, however, will lie in
the fact that it furnishes a standard for the procedure of other
communities in the design of sewage plants. While London
and Birmingham and Leeds and Manchester have carried out
vast experiments upon this subject, Columbus is the first
American municipality to make a careful study of local conditions
before the construction of a sewage disposal system. It is to be
hoped that in the future this may come to be recognized as
the only sensible and economical way to attack the question.
There are local conditions which make the treatment of each
sewage more or less a special problem. In small plants slight
differences may be ignored; but no large city should install a
purification system without just such an investigation as that
in which Columbus has taken the lead.
Such special studies will not only throw light on purely
local problems, but must add to our general knowledge of the
underlying principles of sewage disposal. Each case has in-
deed peculiarities of its own ; but certain fundamental laws may
be formulated which will materially simplify the solution of
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 351
the individual problem. Thus we now know that chemical
precipitation is only in exceptional cases a satisfactory process
for preliminary treatment. There are numerous similar im-
portant questions still unanswered. We know that sufficient
straining and settling to remove paper and garbage, gravel and
silt, is always desirable. After this has been accomplished,
is it generally of advantage to remove any portion of the sus-
pended solids by fine strainers or by septic treatment, or can all
the organic matter be oxidized without the production of putres-
cible sludge which more or less attends all anaerobic processes ?
When American sewage is treated in the septic tank what causes
the marked variation in the results obtained? Are periods of
septic action of less than twelve hours desirable? For subse-
quent treatment, what are the comparative merits of the contact
and the trickling filter? If the trickling filter be used, what
is the cheapest system for securing adequate distribution?
With intermittent filters, how rapid a rate can be attained
under practical conditions, and by what frequency of dosing?
These are some of the general questions which press for settle-
ment and whose solution in one set of experiments will be of
value, when corrected for local differences, in every other case.
Besides the study of local conditions and the formulation
of general principles of engineering practice, we need a third
class of data, of a more theoretical character. The processes of
sewage purification are chemical changes carried out, as we now
believe, by the activity of the bacteria. Sewage treatment
is undertaken in order to remove putrescible organic matter, and
its efficiency must be measured by chemical tests which shall
record the amount and condition of the carbonaceous and
nitrogenous material. We need, therefore, more detailed studies
on the methods and the interpretation of chemical analysis.
As the end of the process is chemical, and its success is measured
by chemical methods, so the agents which carry it out are
the bacteria, and the conditions which favor or retard it must
be determined by bacteriological ' investigations. Such re-
searches in pure chemistry and bacteriology as are being carried
out at Worcester by Prof. L. P. Kinnicutt, at Lawrence by
Messrs. H.W. Clark and S. D. Gage, and at Columbus by Mr.W. R.
Copeland, must furnish the data which shall lead to the prac-
tical development of the art of sewage purification in the future.
In the sewage of the South Metropolitan District of Boston
there is discharged in one year 1 500 000 kg. of nitrogen in the
form of free ammonia, and 500 000 kg. more as albuminoid
352 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ammonia. To convert such vast amounts of material into
an innocuous form is a problem in industrial chemistry, of
no mean magnitude. It cannot be solved by rule of thumb
methods. Theoretical studies, local investigations, expert
construction and intelligent supervision are required satisfac-
torily to meet it.
REFERENCES.
Alvord, J. W.—
The Practical Operation of Sewage Purification Plants. Milwaukee.
Alvord, J. W. (1902.)
Sewage Purification Plants. Journal of the Western Society of En-
gineers. VII. 1902, .113.
Marston, A. (1903.)
Sewage Disposal in Iowa. Journal of the Western Society of Engin-
eers. VIII. 1903, 638.
Pratt, R. W. (1904.)
The Columbus Testing Station. Ohio Sanitary Bulletin, IX. 1904,
177.
Pratt, R. W. (1905.)
Report on an Examination of Sewage Purification Plants in Ohio.
Eighteenth Annual Report of the State Board of Health for the year
1903.
Shields, W. S. 1,1904.)
Filters vs. Contact Beds in Sewage Purification. Proceedings of the
Indiana Engineering Society. 1904.
DISCUSSION.
Mr. X. H. Goodnough. — One of the most remarkable
results of the investigations of Mr. Winslow is the inefficiency
which these investigations have disclosed in the operation
of the sewage disposal plants visited. Unpurified sewage is
discharged from some of the sewage disposal works in Massa-
chusetts, but compared with the results of Mr. Winslow 's inves-
tigations the amount of sewage allowed to flow untreated
into streams in Massachusetts from towns which have purifica-
tion works is very small. Of the 15 sewage disposal plants of
considerable size where works were originally provided for the
treatment of the sewage, all of the sewage is treated at all
times at 6 places, or more than one-third of those having puri-
fication works, and very little sewage is discharged untreated
at 6 of the remaining places, leaving only 3 places out of the
15 at which, at the present time, any considerable quantity of
sewage is allowed to escape without treatment. Of these three
places the largest quantity of waste occurs at Marlboro where
the flow of the sewage in the early spring is greatly increased
by leakage of ground water into the sewers, and the area
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 353
available is inadequate for the purification of the sewage at such
times. At Southbridge very considerable quantities of sewage
are wasted at times; such waste is unnecessary, though at
this place, as at Marlboro, the maximum flow of sewage is very
large as compared with the average. The same is true of
Natick, where much dilute sewage is allowed to escape untreated
during the early spring.
The difficulty in disposing of sewage in the late winter and
early spring in this climate arises from the fact that the filter
beds are often covered with snow and ice for periods of many
weeks in winter, when it is impracticable to remove clogging
material from their surfaces, so that their capacity for passing
sewage becomes reduced. At the same time, as the snow melts,
the quantity of sewage discharged upon the filtration area
reaches its maximum, and unless an adequate area is available
to dispose of the sewage under these conditions, the discharge
of a portion of the sewage without treatment must result.
At those places where an adequate area of filter beds has been
provided no difficulty is experienced in passing the sewage
through the filters at all times, and this is the case with four-
fifths of the sewage filters in Massachusetts. While, as already
indicated, a greater or less quantity of sewage is discharged
untreated at the majority of places in Massachusetts, the
quantity so discharged is, in a large proportion of these, so
small as to be of little consequence. In most such cases the
discharge of untreated sewage is caused by the desire to
avoid the cost of pumping at times when the flow of sewage
is at its maximum and not by inadequacy of the filter beds.
The temptation to discharge the excess of flow of sewage at
night, at times when the sewage is very dilute, and the ad-
jacent stream is in flood, is one which the city and town
authorities in charge of sewage disposal works find it difficult
to resist.
The Chairman. — One question occurred to me during
Mr. Winslow's paper, — I have forgotten the name of the
place where he described the filter as being made up in layers
of different sized material. I would like to ask if there has
been any trouble from a collection of deposits or growth at the
dividing lines between the different sized materials.
Mr. Winslow. — As far as I know, there would be no way
of detecting that. I know of no observation on that point. I
don't think the filter had been taken to pieces.
Mr. Dwight Porter. — Mr. Chairman, I would like to
354 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ask Mr. Goodnough if it is customary in these Massachusetts
plants to deliver the sewage in winter, when it is delivered, in
small doses, in short time, or whether in any case it is delivered
in a steady, moderate flow.
Mr. Goodnough. — It differs at different places. At
Framingham, Clinton and Brockton, for example, the sewage
is all delivered in the daytime. It is collected during the night
into a reservoir, and pumped usually in a period of about eight
hours at the time of maximum flow. At several gravity plants
the sewage is applied to the filter beds as it comes, while at
other places a larger or smaller tank is used as a dosing tank
to provide intermittent dosing of the beds.
Mr. Leonard Metcalf. — Mr. Chairman, like the rest
of you, I have enjoyed very much the talk Mr. Winslow has
given us. It seems to me he has presented the case fairly and
in a well balanced way. Mr. Goodnough's words about the
Massachusetts plants bring to our minds very clearly one of the
essential differences in the problem in the East and in the Middle
West, of which engineers sometimes lose sight. I take it that
there are few who would question the fact that the slow sand
filtration system is the most desirable where it is possible. Here
in New England, where we have large areas of sand, which are
suitable for this purpose, it is very natural that we should have
developed the science along those lines, and I have no doubt
that the excellence of the results which are being obtained
in certain places is due very largely to the studies which have
been made by the State Board of Health, and to the fact that
the State Board of Health has in a way supplied that very expert
supervision which has been alluded to to-night as being so
necessary in order to obtain good results from sewage disposal
plants. We should not lose sight of the fact that in the Middle
West and certain other parts of this country the slow sand
filtration system is an impossible, or at all events an impractic-
able one, prohibitory on account of the expense, and when an
engineer is face to face with the situation of having to purify
the sewage of a certain community, of course he has to bear in
mind the financial question as well as the sanitary question
involved. So the engineer in the Middle West and in similar
regions is obliged to turn to other media than sand which he
can use in order to accomplish the necessary purification.
I had an interesting problem in my own experience a
short time ago in the tropics, — in Costa Rica it was, — where
this point was very clearly brought out. We were short of
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 355
funds, yet it was essential to get 'reasonably good purification
on account of the small summer flow of the stream into which
the effluent was to be discharged, and coming from New
England, I naturally first thought of sand filtration. Sandy
areas were not to be had, however. Sand had to be brought
from the sea, or from some of the rivers, at a consider-
able distance, with freight rates approaching a cent a pound.
Sand of course was out of the question. Then I turned to
cinders, or gravel or stone. Cinders were not to be had, because
coal cost anywhere from $25 to $35 a ton, at times perhaps as
low as $15 a ton, so that cinders were very scarce. Gravel
was not to be had in suitable size in that region, which was largely
a volcanic region. The next thing considered was whether
bricks or similar material could be used. I investigated the
brick yards to see whether there were brick-bats and ac-
cumulations of that sort, and I found that all the yards in the
city did not make enough brick, let alone bats, in the course of
a year to furnish material for building purposes. Then I in-
vestigated the supply of stone. Most of the material was
unsuitable. I did find large bowlders along some of the streams
which could be crushed or broken up by hand, and some
ledges which could be utilized by carting the material for a
considerable distance. Of course that made it necessary,
on account of the expense of getting this material, to make use
of high rates of filtration. Fortunately in that region they are
not troubled with frost, so that some of the difficulties with
which we meet in this latitude are not experienced there.
I cite that instance merely as showing that the problem
an engineer has to face is an economic one and that he has
to be governed quite as much by the financial considerations
as by the sanitary considerations involved. For this reason I
do not think we should condemn, broadly speaking, plants
which perhaps are not operated in the winter months, without
knowing about the conditions which exist in the particular towns
or cities in which the plants are located. It seems to me that
there are some places where it is entirely sufficient to purify
the sewage during the summer months of low flow in the streams
when a nuisance would be created by not doing so ; whereas
these same streams during the winter months would carry
sufficient water to make it unnecessary to adopt any method
of disposal other than dilution.
That suggests to me reference to one remark which Mr.
Winslow made about the septic tanks, — I take it he would
356 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
not condemn septic tanks for all localities. It occurs to me,
that there are locations along the seashore, for instance,
where all that is necessary is to remove the greater part of the
floating matter, the paper, etc. If it is only paper that is to be
removed, that can be done by screening racks; but if we go
beyond that, the septic tank is perhaps the cheapest thing to
use to accomplish the ends desired. In the same way, in cer-
tain rivers, where there is necessary water to give sufficient
dilution, all that is necessary may be to take the coarser
matter out of the sewage.
I confess that I have come to feel, from my present knowl-
edge of the subject in these other districts to which I have
alluded, that the most hopeful line of investigation now is
towards the trickling filter, or something akin to that, rather
than the use of the septic tank and contact beds. I think con-
siderable work is yet to be done, but we must all welcome
the work being done in Columbus, and hope that it will be the
beginning of similar investigations.
Mr. Coffin. — Mr. Chairman, I have been much inter-
ested in the papers to-night. The comparison of the Massa-
chusetts system of sand filtration with these other systems
brought to my mind an incident which, in a way, was rather
amusing, and which showed that while in sewage matters the
critic may not be obliged to know very much about his subject,
yet it is desirable in a way to know something about it. Sev-
eral years ago I was called upon to design a system of purifica-
tion for the Pictou County Insane Asylum in Pictou, Nova
Scotia, a small plant, where the conditions were very difficult.
The effluent must necessarily go into the river, which not very
far below was being used as a source of water supply for another
town. The asylum was situated in a valley of this river, and
it was impracticable to pump it over the divide. My only
consolation was, that the sewage was already going into the
river, and if I were fairly careful I could not make matters very
much worse. I studied the matter carefully and finally fell
back on the good old Massachusetts way and hauled sand
eight miles to build an intermittent sand filter. I advised the
authorities of the asylum that if they ran the filter carefully it
might purify the sewage sufficiently, but it might be necessary
to put in a second sand filter to filter the effluent before it was
turned into the river.
We put the filter in, built it in the ordinary manner, with
underdrains and 5 ft. in depth of sand, put in a dosing tank, and
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS. 357
set it at work; it was hardly running before the people of New
Glasgow, the town below, got nervous about drinking the
sewage. It hadn't troubled them much before when they
were taking it straight, but they did not like the idea of its going
through a filter. So they employed an engineer to investigate
it and he made a report. The first few pages were devoted to
the theory of sewage purification, and treated of bacteriology
and chemistry and other things; finally he came to the sub-
ject in hand and said that this plant was evidently intended
for a bacteriological plant or septic system, but the designers
had in some way been misled and it was not built in accord-
ance with the correct theory of a bacteriological disposal plant.
He said, in substance, that in the first place the septic tank
was not properly designed, that instead of sewage passing
slowly through the tank, it was discharged suddenly and
periodically on to the beds, which prevented any proper
septic action. In the next place, the beds were not properly
contact beds. The sewage could not be controlled, there was
no means of retaining it on the beds or of drawing it off; it
apparently could only soak away in the sand; and in fact the
whole thing was not designed in a proper manner. He said he
had made no tests of the effluent, but he had examined it, and it
was clear and colorless, but this was not conclusive of its purifi-
cation (laughter) and the whole thing must be condemned. He
advised that it be abandoned as it was not safe, and by inference
that the asylum should go back to the old system of discharging
the sewage into the river in a crude state. The thing was
referred to the Health authorities there, and, finally, after a
great deal of discussion and explanation, the operation of the
filter was allowed to go on, and, so far as I know, it is going on
to-day. (Laughter and applause.)
The Chairman. — It has been suggested that I ask Mr.
Winslow regarding the odor from the Allis-Ch aimers Companv.
I think it would be interesting to know if Mr. Winslow took
along his olfactory organs as well as his organs of sight.
Mr. Winslow. — Mr. President, there is no odor what-
ever at Allis even from the trickling filters, except the odor of
hot steam. Very few of the plants were obnoxious. Of course,
they would be better at this season of the year than at other
times. I remember at East Cleveland that there was consider-
able odor, and at Westerville there was. a noticeable odor of
sewage from the imperfectly dosed beds. Those are the onlv
two plants at which there was any odor.
358 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Mr. R. S. Weston. — May I ask Mr. Winslow what he
means by odor; whether it is what an expert would call odor
or what a citizen of the town calls odor?
Mr. Winslow. — I have been a plumbing inspector, and I
think I am pretty well trained in the sense of smell, and really I
don't think the odor was noticeable in the other plants. There
was odor in the septic tanks, but walking or driving by I don't
think there was any odor which would be noticeable.
Mr. G. A. Carpenter. — I feel like adding my word of
commendation of the paper read by Mr. Winslow, knowing
that we have in this paper the evidence of an impartial
witness, taken at those plants when they were acting under
extremely difficult conditions, which is something we seldom
get when we receive the reports of plants first installed. I
remember, and I think most of us recall, in almost all
the plants shown, that at the first installation data were
published regarding the details of the plants, and it was
assumed that they were going to get a perfectly pure and
satisfactory effluent without any further attention. I think
in one particular instance — I am almost sure it is one of
the plants spoken about — that I remember that after the
plant was installed it was to be practically locked up and it
would act continuously without giving any further trouble.
I think most of us who have had any practical experience at all
jn the operation of sewage disposal plants have encountered
a different condition of affairs entirely, and I feel that reports
of this kind by impartial witnesses, going into detail as Mr.
Winslow has done, are extremely valuable,.
Mr. Porter. — Mr. President, it seemed to me, in casually
looking over recent annual reports of the State Board of Health,
that in advice to towns in regard to the disposal of sewage there
seemed to be a little tendency to discourage the use of the
septic tank. Perhaps I didn't get the right impression. If
I did, was it due to the conviction that they ought to be dis-
couraged, or simply because of special circumstances in these
cases? Perhaps Mr. Goodnough can explain it.
Mr. Goodnough. — Possibly such inference may have
been drawn from some replies to the Board relative to certain
sewage disposal cases. Each case is, however, considered on
its merits, and I do not think there has been any expression of
disapproval of the septic tank, because it was a septic tank,
but because the plan was not adapted to the locality in
question.
WINTER VISIT TO SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANTS.
359
I think Mr. Metcalf has called attention very clearly to
the difference in the problems in the different parts of this
country. There is a difference and a very distinct difference. I
have seen no cases in Massachusetts as yet where it was very
difficult to convey the sewage to some area of land suitable for
the purification of sewage, and we know, from our experiments
at Lawrence and the experience from the plants now in opera-
tion, that by that method better results can probably be secured
than in any other way, and probably at less expense, but there
may be cases arising here, as in other states, in which there
is no area readily available adapted to the purification of sewage
or intermittent filtration. In such cases I think the Board
would approve any system that would do the work and do it
satisfactorily for the place in question.
Data appended by Mr. Winslow copied from reports by
Mr. Shields and Mr. Pratt.
Analyses of Sewage and Effluents.
(Shields, 1904.)
Data in parts per 1 000 000.
Nitrogen as
Total
Residue.
Fixed
Residue.
Volatile
Matter.
Oxygen
Consumed.
Locality.
Free
Alb.
Amm.
Amm.
Lake Forest, 111.
Raw Sewage
725.6
526.0
199.6
57 5
n. 2
5-3
Tank Effluent .
1387.2
ior2.o
375-2
375-o
20.0
9-4
Filter Effluent .
667.2
5S6.o
in. 2
7-9
.48
0.3
Allis-Chalmers Co.
Raw Sewage*
Tank Effluent .
541.
39°-
151.
i-5
Trace
.16
Filter Effluent .
542-
380.
162.
2.8
.03
.16
•
Nitrogen as
Bacteria.
Per Cent.
Purification.
Locality.
Nitrites.
Nitrates.
Alb.
Amm.
Bacteria.
Lake Forest, III.
Allis-Chalmers Co.
0.16
0.84
8.00
1.80
1-25
700 000
15 000
14 000
19.60
9.70
.00
98.
98.1
*No chemical analysis.
36<
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
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A
SSOCIATION
OF
Engineering Societies.
Vol. XXXIV. JANUARY, 1905. No. i.
PROCEEDINGS.
Engineers' Club of St. IiOnis.
588th Meeting, St. Louis, December 7, 1904. — Held at the Club rooms,
709 Pine Street, Wednesday evening, December 7, 1004. President Ockerson
presided. Twenty-four members of the Club were present.
The minutes of the 587th meeting were read and approved, and the
minutes of the 378th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
Mr. W. H. Bryan, on behalf of the World's Fair Committee, stated
that arrangements were now under way for the annual dinner, which would
probably be held on the regular evening, Wednesday, December 21st.
Professor Van Ornum presented a motion to the effect "that the Presi-
dent appoint three members to represent the Club in a movement now on
foot for a revision of the building laws of the city." After some discussion
the motion was lost by a vote of nine to seven.
Mr. W. H. Bryan read a telegram from Col. E. D. Meyer, stating that
a resolution favoring the continuation of the work of the United States
Geological Survey Coal-Testing Plant had been adopted by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers in session at this time in New York City.
The Executive Committee was instructed to formulate the proper letter
to the Western Society of Engineers of Chicago, expressing the appreciation
of the Club for the many courtesies extended during the recent trip to
Thebes, 111. The matter was referred to the Secretary for action.
Mr. A. P. Greensfelder moved "that the Entertainment Committee of
the Club to be appointed for the year 1905 be increased from three to five
members, and that such committee be instructed by the Club to arrange
excursions for the Club to various places of interest at least once every two
months." Professor Langsdorf suggested that the motion be amended by
inserting in place of the words "once every two months," "at discretion of
committee." Mr. Brenneke suggested that it be amended to read "about
six excursions during the year." This amendment was accepted by Mr.
Greensfelder, and the motion, as amended, was carried. The motion as
amended reads : "That the Entertainment Committee of the Club, to be
appointed for the year 1905, be increased from three to five members, and
that such committee be instructed by the Club to arrange for the Club to
make about six excursions during the year to various places of interest."
Mr. C. D. Purdon suggested that some arrangement be made to have
the discussions of the papers presented at the various meetings preserved
and published.
3
2 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Mr. Seth D. Merton was elected to membership in the Club.
Mr. Wm. T. Simpson, Jr., was proposed for membership, and his appli-
cation was referred to the Executive Committee for approval.
Mr. Brenneke, chairman of the Nominating Committee, presented a
letter from Mr. Robert Moore, stating that it would be impossible for him
to accept the Presidency of the Club for the ensuing year on account of
other engagements, and requesting that his name be removed from the list
presented by the Nominating Committee. The Nominating Committee re-
quested the privilege of withdrawing their report made at the last meeting,
and substituting another name in place of Mr. Moore's. The privilege was
granted by the Club, as requested, and the committee substituted the name
of Mr. Edward Flad. Other nominations were called for, and the name of
Mr. H. H. Humphrey as a candidate for the Presidency was presented in
due form, as required- by the by-laws. There were no further nominations
for the other offices, and upon motion of Mr. Colby the nominations were
closed.
The reports of the officers and committees were then received. Mr.
Ockerson, the President of the Club, stated that the report of the Executive
Committee would be deferred to a later date.
The report of the Secretary was then presented, and was formally
received and ordered filed.
The report of the Treasurer was presented, and upon motion of Mr.
Zeller, was referred to the Executive Committee to be audited.
The report of the Librarian and that of the Board of Managers were
both received and ordered filed.
The report of the Governing Board of the Associated Technical Clubs,
which was next presented, contained the following recommendation : "That
when the business of the Governing Board has been finally settled between
the various technical clubs, the Governing Board be abolished, and that the
Librarian be made custodian of the new quarters." Professor Van Ornum
moved that the report be received and filed, and that the request be adopted
when the duties of the present Board shall have ceased. The motion was
carried.
Reports of the Entertainment Committee and the World's Fair Com-
mittee were both received and ordered filed.
No report was presented by the Committee on Smoke Prevention.
The President called attention to the fact that this was the last meeting
of the Club at the present quarters. The next meeting of the Club, being
the annual dinner, would naturally be held elsewhere, and the first meeting
in January would be held at the new quarters of the Club in the Academy
cf Science Building.
Adjourned. R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
589TH Meeting, St. Louis, December 21, 1904. — The annual dinner of
the Engineers' Club of St. Louis was held at the Hamilton Hotel, Hamilton
and Maple Avenues, Wednesday evening, December 21st, President Ocker-
son presiding.
There were thirty-one members and fourteen guests present. Of the
latter the following were guests of the Club : Dr. J. A. Holmes, Chief of the
Department of Mines and Metallurgy, World's Fair; Professor A. O. Love-
joy, Washington University; Dr. Theodor Lewald, Commissioner General
PROCEEDINGS. 3
for Germany to the Exposition ; Dr. W. J. McGee, Chief of the Department
of Anthropology, World's Fair; Mr. E. W. Parker, of the U. S. Geological
Survey Fuel Testing Plant; Mr. W. B. Stevens, Secretary of the Exposition
Co. ; Capt. C. H. Smith, of the Westinghouse Co. ; Professor C. M. Wood-
ward, of Washington University; Colonel C. M. Watson, Commissioner
General for Great Britain to the Exposition.
After the dinner, President Ockerson presented a brief address and in-
troduced the following gentlemen, who addressed the Club on the subjects
indicated : Dr. Theodor Lewald, "The Engineering Exhibits of Germany" ;
Dr. J. A. Holmes, "Tests of Fuel and Structural Material" ; Mr. Richard
McCulloch, "Things Across the Water" ; Col. C. M. Watson, "Relations
of American and British Engineers" ; Mr. E. W. Parker, "The Fuel
Problem;" Dr. W. J. McGee, "The Aims of Anthropology."
At the conclusion of these remarks the President announced that the
result of the election of officers for the year 1905 was as follows :
Total number of votes cast, 131.
For President (one to be elected) (Irregular, 10) — Edward Flad, 84;
H. H. Humphrey, 37.
For Vice-President — W. A. Layman, 129.
For Secretary — R. H. Fernald, 129.
For Treasurer — E. E. Wall, 130.
For Librarian — E. B. Fay, 130.
For Directors (two to be elected) — A. P. Greensfelder, 126; H. H.
Humphrey, 122; Edw. Flad, 2; A. S. Langsdorf, 1.
For Members of the Board of Managers of the Association of Engi-
neering Societies (two to be elected) — H. C. Toensfeldt, 131; C. A. Moreno,
130.
Adjourned. R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
590TH Meeting, St. Louis, January 4, 1905. — The meeting was held
at the new Club rooms, 3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, January 4,
1905. President Flad presided. Forty-five members and four guests were
present.
The minutes of the 588th and 589th meetings were read and approved,
and the minutes of the 380th and 381st meetings of the Executive Committee
were read.
Mr. Wm. T. Simpson, Jr., was elected to membership in the Club.
The following applications for membership were presented and referred
to the Executive Committee :
James Adkins, Jr., Archibald L. Anderson. Gurdon Gilmore Black,
James T. Dodds, Wm. August Hoffman, Arthur I. Jacobs, Cloyd Marshall,
Wilfred Van Ness Powelson, Charles Winfield Trowbridge.
The Secretary was instructed to send a vote of thanks of the Club to
the Committee on New Quarters for the splendid work which they had ac-
complished in getting the quarters ready for the first meeting in January,
and for the very attractive appearance which the rooms present.
A vote of thanks was extended to the United Railway Company, through
Mr. Richard McCulloch, for its kindness in furnishing cars during the visit
of the Western Society of Engineers of Chicago.
The Secretary was instructed to express the thanks of the Club to the
4 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
American Society of Civil Engineers for the maps and charts presented to
the Engineers' Club of St. Louis.
Following the business of the evening the Club indulged in an informal
smoker with frequent outbursts of good speeches and stories, not the least
of which was the brief address of the new President, Mr. Edward Flad,
which, owing to his absence on the night of the annual dinner, was missed
at that time.
After a very enjoyable evening in the new quarters, the Club adjourned.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Boston, December 21, 1904. — A regular meeting of the Boston Society
of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at 7.45
o'clock P.M., President Frederick Brooks in the chair; fifty-two members
and visitors present.
The record of the last meeting was read and approved.
William L. Butcher and John Cunliffe, Jr., were elected members of
the Society.
The President announced the death of Macy S. Pope, a member of the
Society, which occurred December 10, 1904, and by vote of the Society the
President was requested to appoint a committee to prepare a memoir. The
following committee has been appointed — Messrs. Leonard Metcalf, A. E.
Burton and L. F. Baldwin.
On motion of Mr. Adams, of the Excursion Committee, the thanks of
the Society were voted to Messrs. Nawn & Brock for courtesies extended
to its members on the occasion of the visit to the work now in progress for
the abolition of grade crossings in East Boston.
The first paper of the evening, entitled "Massachusetts Northern
Boundary," by Nelson Spofford, was read by his son. The compass used
by Richard Hazen in running the boundary line in 1741 was exhibited and
also a number of maps showing the various lines which have been run.
Mr. F. W. Hodgdon had thrown on the screen a number of photo-
graphs of the boundary stones which have been set on the line.
Prof. L. J. Johnson read the second paper, entitled "Some New Data
on the Weight of a Crowd of People," which was illustrated by lantern
slides.
Prof. C. M. Spofford gave the results of some experiments he had
made to ascertain the weight of a crowd of people.
A memoir of Kilburn S. Sweet, prepared by a committee of the Society,
consisting of Profs. Dwight Porter and C. M. Spofford, was read by Pro-
fessor Spofford.
Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland.
Cleveland, January 10, 1905. — The regular January meeting of the Club
was called to order at 8.30 p.m. by Dr. D. C. Miller, Vice-President, with
fifty-three members and visitors present.
Messrs. Colegrove and Dutton, tellers, reported the election to active
PROCEEDINGS. 5
membership of Herman Smith Johannsen, Joseph Ralph Poe, B.S. and
Arthur Elisha Spooner, C.E.
The following applications for active membership, approved by the
Executive Board, were read by the Secretary : L. O. R. Clark, H. J. Desson,
Wm. L. Ely, H. C. Gammeter, A. E. Johnson and Morris S. Towson.
Balloting for a Nominating Committee, for officers for the ensuing year,
resulted in the selection of the following: F. C. Osborn, Harry Fuller, F. E.
Bissell, Dr. C. S. Howe, H. M. Lucas, Prof. F. H. Neff and W. A. Stinch-
comb.
The paper of the evening, "Foundation Soils of Cleveland," was read by
Mr. W. J. Carter, C.E., City Engineer, and was discussed at length by Mr.
H. M. Lane, M.E., Prof. Dutton, Mr. Augustus Mordecai, C.E., and others.
Adjourned. JoE Q BeardsleYj Secretary.
Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul.
St. Paul, Minn., January 9, 1905. — The twenty-second annual meet-
ing of the Civil Engineers' Society of St. Paul was held at the Merchants
Hotel at 6.30 p.m.
Present, 23 members and 5 visitors; President Starkey in the chair.
Minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved.
The reports of the President, Secretary, Treasurer and Librarian were
read and accepted.
The government of the Society was authorized to provide additional
shelving for the library and expend $50.00 for books.
President Starkey was re-elected on the first ballot, and the Secretary
was instructed to cast a ballot for the re-election of all the other officers.
Prof. Weitbrecht presided at the banquet following the meeting, and
directed the entertainment most happily until nearly midnight.
Responses to his call were as follows : L. W. Rundlett — "Concrete-
steel Construction." H. B. Avery — "The Minneapolis Engineers' Club."
A. R. Starkey — "A Short Look Ahead." E. E. Woodman — "The Engineer
as a Social Factor." H. H. Harrison — "A Broken Flywheel." Wm. Dan-
forth — "The County Surveyor." Oscar Claussen — "The Engineer as a
Sportsman." Geo. L. Wilson — "Electric Railway Advances." C. A. Forbes
— "Le Vieux Temps." H. J. Bernier — "Aggression." K. W. Tanner —
"Tenacity." J. Henry Fitz — "Mining Mysteries." Geo. Z. Heuston —
"Outlook from a Sidetrack." H. E. Stevens — "The Panama Canal." A. H.
Wheeler — "Getting a Foothold." W. A. Somers — "Assessing by Guess and
by Rule." W. R. Hoag — "Civic Responsibility."
C. L. Annan, Secretary.
Montana Society of Engineers.
The regular monthly meeting of the Society was held at the Society
headquarters, room 16, Leyson Block, on Saturday evening, December 10.
1904, with President Mouithrop in the chair and a goodly number of the
members present.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved.
Messrs. Peter Kendrick, of Walkerville, and Henry Ward Rowley, of
6 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Billings, were elected to membership in the Society by a unanimous vote.
Under suspension of the rules, the application of George Brown Couper, of
Bozeman, was read, approved and the Secretary was instructed to send out
the ballot and invite Mr. Couper to attend the annual meeting. The Secre-
tary reported the death of William Monroe, a member of the Society, and
Messrs. Carroll and Dunshee were appointed by the Chair to draft proper
resolutions to be presented at the next meeting.
It was decided that the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Society shall
be held Friday and Saturday, January 13 and 14, 1905, at Butte, Mont.
The Secretary read a communication from Mr. Arthur H. Wethey re-
lating to the mining laws of Montana, and the Chair appointed Messrs. H. V.
Winchell, Gillie and Wethey to present a report on same at annual meeting.
Prof. Bowman consented to present a paper at the annual meeting on
"Stresses in a Gallows Frame," and Messrs. Carroll and Starz one on sul-
phate of copper as a means of water purification. Mr. E. J. Strasburger of
Cerre de Pasco, Peru, will also have a thesis on "Railways of Peru." A
discussion of the United States mining laws will also be a part of the pro-
gram at the annual meeting. The committees on transportation reported the
usual railroad rates of one and one-third fare for the round trip.
The headquarters of the Society during the annual meeting will be in
rooms 25 and 26, Lewisohn buildiner, West Granite Street.
The Society then adjourned.
Clinton H. Moore, Secretary.
Engineers' Society of Western New York.
Annual Meeting, Buffalo, N. Y., December, 1904. — The meeting was
held in the rooms of the Society, 533 Ellicott Square, at 4 p.m., and at the
Teck Cafe in the evening of December 6, 1904.
There were present Messrs. Babcock, Norton, Knapp, Speyer, Kielland,
Dark, Haven, Thorn, Bapst, Wilson, Fell, Lyon, Eighmy, Fairchild, Ricker,
Meyer, Elias, Bardol and Alverson.
The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved. Mr. Haven,
the member for the Society, of the Board of Managers of the Associated
Societies, read some correspondence with the Chairman and Secretary of
that Association relative to some changes in the rules.
Messrs. Knapp and Kielland were appointed tellers to count the ballots
for officers of the Society. The President announced the following-named
persons as having been duly elected :
President — George H. Norton.
Vice-President — Horace P. Chamberlain.
Director — Alfred T. Thorn.
Secretary — Harry B. Alverson.
Treasurer — Frank N. Speyer.
Librarian — William A. Haven.
The annual reports of the Secretary and the Treasurer were read and
referred to the Auditing Committee to be appointed by the President; they
were ordered to be printed and sent to the members.
The Librarian said that owing to his absence from the city this fall, he
had not prepared any report, but would do so soon.
On motion of Mr. Knapp, duly seconded, the following addition to the
by-laws was read and adopted by the Society.
PROCEEDINGS. 7
Addition to Article III, Section 2.
"Applications of persons not resident of North America, and who may
be so situated as not to be personally known to three (3) members, may
be recommended for ballot by the Executive Board, after having secured
evidence sufficient, in their opinion, to show that the applicant is worthy of
admission."
The amendments to the constitution and by-laws that were read and
approved at the meeting of the Society, November 1st, were again read,
approved and ordered to be printed and submitted to letter ballot, to be
counted at the regular meeting, January 3, 1905.
Amendment to Article IV of the By-Laws.
ADDITION TO SEC. 12.
"The payment at one time of seventy-five ($75.00) dollars by any mem-
ber not indebted to the Society, shall constitute him a life member, and he
shall be exempt from all future annual dues.
"Any person who has been a member of the Society for twenty (20)
years shall be exempt from all future dues or assessments of any kind."
Note. — This amendment was unanimously adopted by ballot.
President Babcock made a short address on the state of the Society,
and took occasion to thank the members of the Executive Board for their
interest in the affairs of the Society and their punctual attendance at the
meetings and for their assistance to him during the past year.
Votes of thanks to the retiring officers were unanimously adopted.
During the evening session informal remarks on the affairs of the Society
and engineering matters in general were made by Messrs. Norton, Lyon,
Kielland, Ricker, Bapst, Wilson, Meyer, Babcock, Haven, Elias, Dark and
others, and, after a social evening, the meeting adjourned about midnight.
H. B. Alverson, Secretary.
Annual Report of Treasurer.
Buffalo, N. Y., December 5, 1904.
Engineers' Society of Western New York :
Gentlemen, — As your Treasurer, it is my pleasure to submit the follow-
ing report :
RECEIPTS.
Balance in Treasury, December 1, 1903 $318.34
From Secretary and others 593-50
From banks, Interest 12.14
Total $923-98
DISBURSEMENTS.
Rent, October, 1903, to September, 1904, inclusive $276.00
Five quarterly assessments, A. E. S 169.50
Postage, printing and stationery 52-SS
Binding magazines, etc I9-2S
Subscriptions for magazines, etc 20.70
Stenographer and typewriting 13-55
Annual dinner 33-1°
Advertisements 19.60
R. G. Dunn & Co 5-5o
Erie County Bank ' 312.82
Fidelity Bank 1.41
$923.98
8 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
BALANCE ON HAND.
General Fund $0.3 1
Library Fund 60.61
Permanent Fund 253.31
$314-23
With a balance of thirty-one cents in the treasury of the General Fund,
I have in my possession bills due and requiring payment as follows, viz :
Three months' rent $69.00
Printing and postage 10.40
Association E. S. printing 6.50
Typewriting 2.92
Borrowed to pay 3d quarterly assessment 2.00
Postage and general expenses 12.42
$103.24
Respectfully,
F. N. Speyer, Treasurer.
Annual Report of the Secretary for the Year December i, 1903, to
December i, 1904.
Buffalo, N. Y., December 6, 1904.
To the President and Members of the Engineers' Society of Western
New York :
Gentlemen, — I beg to submit the following annual report for the year
ending December 1, 1904:
membership.
Total membership December 1, 1903 83
Total membership December 1, 1904 85
Consisting of —
Honorary member I
Members 66
Associates 13
Juniors 4
Temporary member 1
85
There are three of the above members who have resigned, to take effect
January 1, 1905.
receipts and disbursements.
Entrance fees, 2 $10.00
Annual dues 401.25
Journal advertisements 140.00
Key deposit 25
Annual banquet 12.00
From former Secretary 28.00
$591.50
Deposited with the Treasurer $591.50
PROCEEDINGS. 9
Meetings.
The Society has held seven meetings, with an average attendance of
nine members, as against eight meetings, with an attendance average of
twelve in the previous year. Owing to a lack of quorum three meetings were
not held. One inspection trip to the plant of the Lackawanna Steel Co.,
with an attendance of twenty-seven, was made.
Papers were given at the meetings as follows :
March 1st — "A Broad Plan for the Improvement of the Niagara Frontier
between Buffalo and the Falls, Including the Development of the Niagara
River," by Mr. O. S. Garrettson.
April 5th — "The Utilization of Niagara Falls Power," by Mr. H. W.
Buck.
May 5th — "The Silicate of Lime Stone Process," by Mr. Adsit, and
"The Cornell Steel Lath," by Mr. Harrower.
Twelve meetings of the Executive Committee were held, with an average
attendance of five. In this connection it may be noted that the Executive
Committee formed 60 per cent, of the average attendance at the regular
meetings.
Very respectfully,
H. B. Alverson, Secretary.
IS/IAF*
Showing the locations of the Societies forming
THE ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
(Each dot represents a membership of one hundred, or fraction thereof over fifty.)
A
SSOCIATION
OF
Engineering Societies.
Vol. XXXIV. FEBRUARY, 1905. No. 2.
PROCEEDINGS.
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland.
Cleveland, February 14, 1905. — The regular meeting of the Club was
held in Electricity Building, Case School of Applied Science, in the large
auditorium, and was called to order by Dr. D. C. Miller, Vice-President.
The Club had as its guests the Cleveland Foundry Foremen's Associa-
tion, the subject of the paper for the evening being of especial interest to
them. There were present about 300 members and guests.
The Nominating Committee, through its Chairman, Mr. F. C. Osborn,
presented the following nominations for officers of the Club for the ensuing
year : For President, Bernard L. Green, C.E. ; for Vice-President, Dr.
Dayton C. Miller; for Secretary, Joseph C. Beardsley; for Treasurer, Arthur
G. McKee, M.E. ; for Librarian, Elmer B. Wight; and for Directors, Col.
Dan C. Kingman, U.S.A., and Charles H. Wright, C.E.
The tellers reported the election to active membership of Messrs. L. O.
R. Clark, M.E., H. J. Desson, Wm. L. Ely, H. C. Gammeter, Allen E. John-
son and Morris S. Towson, C.E. ; and the Secretary read the following
applications: Messrs. H. J. C. Freyn, M.E. ; H. A. Gilbert, Ph.B. ; F.
E. Hulett, M.E. ; F. J. Littell, M. E. ; Chas. H. Little, Franklin Moeller,
M.E. ; H. E. Scott, C.E. ; W. H. Thompson, M.E., for active membership;
Mr. Geo. N. Pifer, for associate membership; and Mr. R. S. Moore, M.E.,
Portsmouth, Ohio, for corresponding membership.
Tellers also reported that fifty-three ballots were cast for and one against
the proposition to transfer $700 from the Permanent to the General Fund.
The Chairman therefore declared that the proposition had carried.
The paper of the evening, "Thermit," was read by Dr. Stutz. Vice-
President of the Goldschmidt Thermit Company, and was accompanied
by many demonstrations of the uses to which this new process has been
put, such as the welding of street railway rails, wrought-iron pipe, etc. ; the
boring of a hole in a j4-inch iron plate, which was afterward filled up again
by a similar process, etc.
Joe C. Beardsley, Secretary.
ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Boston, January 25, 1905. — A regular meeting of the Boston Society of
Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at 7.40 o'clock
p.m., President Frederick Brooks in the chair; nineteen members and
visitors present.
The record of the last meeting was read and approved.
Messrs. Herbert W. Olmsted and Frank L. Toof were elected members
of the Society.
The President stated that under the By-laws it was necessary at this
meeting to choose a committee to nominate officers, and, on motion, it was
voted that members of the committee be nominated from the floor. As the
result of such nominations the following committee was chosen to nominate
officers for the ensuing year: Messrs. Robert S. Weston, Wm. S. Johnson,
F. W. Hodgdon, G. A. Kimball and I. E. Moultrop.
Mr. Henry Manley was appointed a committee to make the necessary
arrangements for the annual dinner of the Society.
The President announced the death of Charles M. Wilkes, a member
of the Society, which occurred on January 7, 1905, and, in accordance with
the usual practice, that a committee would be appointed to prepare a memoir.
The following have been selected as members of that committee: Messrs.
Howard A. Carson and Gaetano Lanza.
On motion of Mr. Adams, of the Excursion Committee, the thanks of
the Society were voted to Mr. George Phillips, Deputy Superintendent of
the Sewer Division of Boston, for courtesies extended to members of the
Society on the occasion of the visit to the works of the sewer department
under construction at the Back Bay Fens on Thursday, January 12, 1905.
Mr. Irving E. Moultrop read the paper of the evening, entitled "The
Steam-turbo Generator Station of the Edison Electric Illuminating Com-
pany of Boston." The paper was very fully illustrated by lantern slides.
The paper was briefly discussed by Mr. Leonard Metcalf and others.
Memoirs of the following members, which had been prepared by com-
mittees of the Society, were read : James T. Boyd, Reuben Shirreff s and
Macy S. Pope.
Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
Boston, Mass., February 15, 1905. — A regular meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple, at
7.40 o'clock p. m., President Frederick Brooks in the chair. Sixty-three
members and visitors present.
The record of the last meeting was read and approved.
Messrs. Henry E. Cowan, Charles S. Shaughnessy, George P. Shute
and Theodore W. Souther were elected members of the Society.
A communication was read from the Executive Committee representing
a joint committee appointed by the Twentieth Century Club, the Boston
Society of Architects, the Municipal Improvement League and the Massa-
chusetts Civic League for the purpose of gathering information and material
bearing upon municipal improvement, asking this Society to join in the
undertaking by the appointment of a committee to represent it. On motion
it was voted to refer the matter to the Board of Government for investiga-
PROCEEDINGS. 13
tion. Later in the meeting Mr. Ralph Adams Cram, of the Executive Com-
mittee, explained briefly the object desired to be gained by the collection
of the information on municipal improvement.
The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. W. C. Fish, Manager of
the Lynn works of the General Electric Co., and to Mr. G. H. Stickney,
its engineer, for courtesies extended to members of the Society on the
occasion of the visit to the Lynn works this afternoon.
The thanks of the Society were also voted to the Edison Electric Illumi-
nating Co. for their kindness in arranging for the inspection of their plant
at South Boston, on January 25th.
Mr. David A. Harrington read the paper of the evening, entitled
"Underground and Submarine Conduits for Electric Wires." The paper
was very fully illustrated with lantern slides. A general discussion followed
the reading of the paper.
Adjourned. S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
Engineers' Club of St. Louis.
591ST Meeting, St. Louis, January 18, 1905. — Held at the Club rooms,
3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, January 18, 1905. President Flad
presided. Thirty-five members and four guests were present.
The minutes of the 590th meeting were read and approved, and the
minutes of the 3&2d meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
The following applications for membership were read and referred to
the Executive Committee : Herbert I. Finch, Stanley H. Moore.
The following were elected to membership in the Club : James Adkins,
Jr., Archibald L. Anderson, Gurdon Gilmore Black, James T. Dodds, William
August Hoffman, Arthur I. Jacobs, Cloyd Marshall, Wilfred Van Ness
Powelson, Charles Winfield Trowbridge.
The Secretary reported that notice had been received of the death of
Mr. M. L. Mitchell, a member of the Club, on September 27, 1904.
Mr. W. G. Brenneke, Chairman of the Committee on New Quarters,
presented the final report of the Committee. The report was received and
ordered filed, and the Committee discharged.
The President appointed the following as the Entertainment Committee
for the year 1905: W. G. Brenneke, R. S. Colnon, C. D. Purdon, Richard
McCulloch, Gerard Swope.
Mr. Daniel Breck, Chief Engineer of the Terminal Railroad Association
of St. Louis, presented a very interesting paper upon "Recent Terminal
Improvements in St. Louis." After discussion by Messrs. Helm, Winn,
Moreno, Flad and Breck, Mr. A. P. Greensfelder presented a supplementary
paper of interest upon "Some Details of Reconstruction Work at the Union
Station." After brief discussion the Club adjourned, as the hour was late.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
592D Meeting, St. Louis, February i, 1905. — Held at the Club rooms,
3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, February 1, 1905, President Flad
presiding. There were present twenty-five members and four guests.
The minutes of the 591st meeting were read and approved, and the
minutes of the 383d meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
14 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Applications for membership in the Club were read from Robert E.
Adrean, Baxter L. Brown, Edward L. Dillon. Win, S. Henry, John B.
Meyers and Frank W. Valliant.
Mr. Herbert I. Finch and Mr. Stanley H. Moore were elected members
of the Club.
The paper of the evening upon "Inventions and Patents," by Professm-
J. H. Kinealy, was received with interest, and after brief discussion by
Messrs. Flad and Moreno, the Club adjourned.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
593D Meeting, St. Louis, February 15TH, 19x35. — Held at the Club
Rooms, 3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, February 15th, 1905, Presi-
dent Flad presiding. There were present thirty-four members and two
guests.
The minutes of the 592d meeting were read and approved, and the
minutes of the 384th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
Applications for membership in the Club were read from George Waters
Arnott, Win. Ralph Bush. Wm. H. Elliot, Elmer C. Peper.
The following were elected to membership in the Club : Robert Enos
Adrean, Baxter L. Brown, Edward L. Dillon, Wm. S. Henry, John B.
Myers, Frank Worthington Valliant.
Owing to frequent absence from the city and pressure of business,
Mr. H. H. Humphrey was unable to prepare his paper on "Industrial
Electric Power Plants."
Prof. A. S. Langsdorf kindly came to the rescue and presented a paper
on "The Regulation of Alternators."
Following the paper, Mr. E. W. Parker, Director of the U. S. Geologi-
cal Survey Coal Testing Plant, at the World's Fair Grounds, made a few
remarks regarding the progress of the work and the results secured.
Professor Langsdorf and Professor Fernald outlined briefly the arrange-
ment of the engineering laboratories of Washington University.
The President announced as the paper for the meeting of March 1st,
"Our Grade Crossing Problems," by Mr. Carl Gayler.
Adjourned. R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
Engineers' Clnb of Minneapolis.
179TH Meeting, Minneapolis, Minn., February 13, 1905. — Called to
order by President Avery, in the County Commissioners' Room. Minutes of
the last meeting were read and approved. The following names were pro-
posed for membership : E. D. Williams, mechanical engineer, 317 Hennepin
avenue, Minneapolis; Ernest W. Langdon, architect, 312 10th avenue,
South, Minneapolis; A. P. Melton, manufacturer, 601-7 Northwest Bl'd,
Minneapolis.
The Secretary read a number of letters from Mr. Dexter Brackett regard-
ing proposed changes in the rules governing the Board of Managers of the
Association of Engineering Societies. A short discussion followed, result-
ing in the Chair appointing Mr. Tate and Mr. Rogers to confer with
Representative Hoag as to what action should be taken about dues and
membership.
PROCEEDINGS. 15
Mr. Avery, retiring President, then spoke briefly, offering such sugges-
tions regarding the future welfare of the Society as had occurred to him
from his experience as President.
The Secretary submitted his report for the year as follows :
Annual Report of the Secretary.
The following report for the year of 1904, is submitted by the Secretary:
Seven meetings were held during the year, as follows :
1726. Meeting, January 18th. Held in the. County Commissioners' Room.
Reports were made by various committees. New officers were elected for
the ensuing year.
173d Meeting, February 29th. Held in the County Commissioners'
Room. A paper was read by Mr. Francis Henry on "Rice Culture in Texas
and Louisiana." Prof. F. H. Bass read a paper on "The Relation of the
Engineer to the Public Health."
174th Meeting, March 28th. Held in the County Commissioners' Room.
A paper was read by Geo. H. Maxwell, of Chicago, on "The Engineering
Problems of the West, or What the West Offers to the Engineer."
175th Meeting, June 4th. By invitation of the Minneapolis Steel &
Machinery Co., a visit of inspection was made to their plant.
176th Meeting, October 10th. Held in the County Commissioners'
Room. Papers were given by the following gentlemen concerning our city
water supply: Andrew Rinker, Dr. J. Frank Corbett, A. D. Meeds and
F. W. Cappelen.
177th Meeting, October 31st. Held in the Teachers' Assembly Room at
the City Hall. The papers of the evening were devoted to concrete-steel
construction, as follows : "The International System," by F. W. Graham ;
"The Turner System," by C. A. P. Turner; "The Brayton System," by Louis
F. Brayton.
178th Meeting, January 24, 1905. Held on the fourth floor of the Court
House, in conjunction with the Northwestern Concrete Manufacturers' Asso-
ciation convention. Mr. Richard L. Humphrey, of Philadelphia, delivered
a lecture on "Cement."
Three papers given before the Club have been published in the Journal,
and at least one other is now being gotten ready for publication.
The membership of the Club during the year has remained about the
same. No new members have been taken in ; two or three have been dropped
on account of non-payment of dues, or their present addresses being unknown.
The writer has now had the honor of this office for two years, and
would request that the honors and privileges of the office should now be
given another. Respectfully submitted.
J. B. Gilman, Secretary.
The following statement of the receipts and expenditures of the Club
for the year of 1904 is submitted by the Treasurer :
receipts.
Cash on hand when accounts were last audited $69.60
Dues of 58 members for 1904 174.00
Dues of 9 members for 1905 27.00
Received from sale of magazines 33-5°
$304.10
16 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
EXPENDITURES.
Stamped envelopes $10.60
Stenographic Work 5.75
Association Journal 143.30
Printing cards 28.50
Engrossing 8.08
Printing membership certificates 4.50
Printing magazine catalogue 23.00
Lantern slides illustrating papexs 21.00
Postage, stationery, etc 4.50
249.23
Balance on hand $5487
Respectfully submitted,
B. H. Durham, Treasurer.
J. M. Tate, Chairman of Committee on Exhibits for the St. Louis
Fair, made a final report that everything had been finished up satisfactorily
and without any expense to the Club. Committee was discharged.
The election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as follows :
President — E. P. Burch.
Secretary — H. A. Rogers.
Treasurer — O. P. Bailey.
Librarian— W. W. Redfield.
Representative to the Association of Engineering Societies — H. B. Avery.
Finance Committee — C. S. Pillsbury and J. M. Tate.
E. P. Burch, incoming President, continued the committee appointed
at a former meeting to make arrangements for a banquet. He also appointed
the following committees :
O. P. Bailey, on Membership Card.
N. P. Cowles, on Badge.
H. A. Rogers, on Advertising.
The meeting then adjourned.
J. B. Gilman. Secretary.
Montana Society of Engineers.
The eighteenth annual meeting of the Montana Society of Engineers
was held in Butte, Friday and Saturday, January 13 and 14, 1905, with the
largest attendance of members within the history of the Society. Friday
was devoted to visits to various points of interest about this mining region.
In the forenoon a trip was made to Walkerville and an examination made,
through the courtesy of Messrs. Wisner & Humphrey, of the plant of the
Montana Zinc Co., recently built to reduce the refractory zinc ores of this
section. After lunch the members were the guests of Mr. Thomas Bryant,
Superintendent of the Original Mining Co., and were given a trip through
the West Stewart Mine and an opportunity to see a very economical
method of handling and framing mine timbers. Later in the day a call
was made at the Pittsmont Smelter, where the members were favored with
a fine lunch and given permission to examine fully the new process of ore
PROCEEDINGS. 17
reduction of the first smelter of the kind erected in Butte. Every kindness
was shown the members by the manager's corps of assistants, and a late
departure was made for headquarters, with the only regret that Manager
Baggeley of the Smelter was too ill to meet the members of the Society.
In the evening the visiting members were the guests of the Butte members
at the Broadway Theater and after the play were served with a collation at
the headquarters of the Society, Room No. 25 Lewisohn Building. Satur-
day was devoted strictly to business. The meeting was called to order at
10 o'clock, with President Moulthrop in the chair, and a quorum present.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved. The Sec-
retary presented the applications of Messrs. J. R. Wharton, D. C. Bard
and Alvin O. Greeson for membership in the Society, and on approval the
ballots were ordered sent out. Mr. Geo. .B. Couper was elected to mem-
bership by a unanimous ballot. The ballots for the new officers for the
ensuing year were submitted to Tellers Carroll and Dunshee, who reported
the result of the election as follows : Ernest W. King, President ; Bertram
H. Dunshee, First Vice-President; Edward C. Kinney, Second Vice-Presi-
dent; Clinton H. Moore, Secretary and Librarian; Samuel Barker, Jr.,
Treasurer; Robert A. McArthur, Trustee. President Moulthrop declared
the above-named persons elected to their various offices, and in a neat speech
introduced President King, who thanked the Society for the honor con-
ferred upon him and then proceeded with the next order. The report of the
Committee on Resolutions on the death of Wm. Munroe was read and
adopted. The Secretary's and Treasurer's reports for the past year were read
by those officers and referred to the proper committee. Communications
were read by the Secretary from Messrs. C. M. Thorpe, J. W. Neill and
President N. R. Leonard. The one from President Leonard had special
reference to the appointment of a State Geologist. His communication was
referred to a Committee, to report in the afternoon. The Secretary then
read a new set of rules of the Association of Engineering Societies, under
discussion by that organization, and after a lengthy discussion by the mem-
bers present it was voted that the question of the Society remaining in the
Association of Engineering Societies be made a special order of business at
our March meeting and the Secretary be directed to invite written dis-
cussions from all active members of the Society. The Committee appointed
on a communication from Mr. A. H. Wethey asked for further time to
consider the-matter and it was granted. Mr. Carroll moved the thanks of
the Society to all parties whose favors had contributed to make the meet-
ing a success, and after the present of a fine picture by Mr. E. C. Kinney,
the session was adjourned to 1.30 p.m. The afternoon session was called
to order by President King, and retiring President Moulthrop favored the
Society with an address. Mr. Moulthrop was followed by Mr. E. J. Stras-
burger, with a thesis entitled, "The Central & Cerre de Pasco Ry. of Peru."
Mr. Carroll read a paper written by himself and Mr. Emil Starz, on
"Sulphate of Copper" as a water purifier, and Professor C. H. Bowman
gave a dissertation on "Stresses in a Gallows Frame." The last paper was
a discussion of U. S. Mining Laws by C. W. Goodale, and after its reading-
it was referred to a committee to take up the question and petition the
government to make such change. Mr. Goodale's paper brought forth re-
marks of interest from many members. Mr. Geo. Couper presented a com-
munication from the Engineers' Club of Bozeman, and the Secretary read
7
18 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
one from Great' Falls relative to the marking the "Trail of Lewis and Clarke"
by suitable monuments. The committee on the matter of a State Geologist
reported in favor of the same, and the Secretary was instructed to mail a
copy of the proposed bill to various members of the State Legislature now
in session. In the evening a banquet at the Hotel Finlen closed the annual
session.
Clinton H. Moore, Secretary.
The regular monthly meeting of the Society was held in the Society
Room, 16 Leyson Block, on Saturday evening, February n, 1905, with
President King presiding, and a large membership in attendance. The
minutes of the annual meeting were read and approved. Messrs. J. R.
Wharton, D. C. Bard and Alvin O. Greeson were elected to membership in
the Society, and Chas. M. Allen was reinstated. The applications of Frank
Hayes Keller, Robert Kilgore Humphrey, Howard Donald McLeod and
Chas. William Leimer to become members of the Society were read by the
Secretary, and after approval it was ordered that ballots be sent out. Mr.
Joseph H. Harper presented his views on the proposed changes in U. S.
Mining Laws in a written paper, and at the close of his remarks a lengthy dis-
cussion on the part of a majority of the members present followed. At length
it was decided that a continuation of the subject of mining law changes and
legislation be made the leading topic for the March meeting. The Society
then adjourned.
Clinton H. Moore, Secretary.
A
E
S S O C I AT I O N
OF
NGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Vol. XXXIV. MARCH, 1905. No. 3.
PROCEEDINGS.
Technical Society of tlie Pacific Coast.
Regular Meeting, San Francisco, Cal., November 4, 1904.— This
meeting was held for the purpose of discussing informally the autumnal
meeting to be held December 1, 2 and 3, 1904, and no other business was
transacted than that directly connected with this subject.
The discussions were entirely informal, and the meeting adjourned to be
called December 1st for the transaction of business and for the reading of
the papers prepared for the autumnal meeting.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
FALL MEETING, DECEMBER 1, 2, and 3, 1004.
December ist. — Called to order at 8.30 o'clock p.m., by President
George W. Dickie, who welcomed the members and guests by an introductory
address.
In the order of business the following members were appointed a
Nominating Committee to select a ticket of officers for the ensuing year:
Marsden Manson, F. C. Herrmann, L. S. Griswold, Adolph Lietz and
Hermann Kower.
Mr. W. A. Doble read a paper, written by Robert McF. Doble, illustrated
by numerous lantern slides, on the subject of the "Development of Water
Power and its Electrical Transmission," which was in part a history of the
various plants in operation in California to-day.
The meeting thereupon adjourned to be called at 2 p.m. on Friday,
December 2d.
December 2d, Afternoon Session. — Called to order at 2 o'clock p.m.,
by President Dickie.
The paper proposed by Mr. Geo. W. Nichols on the subject of "Water
Power and Electricity in California" was omitted, the author having been
compelled to remain out of town.
Mr. James C. Bennett thereupon read a paper in which he stated his
views, from the standpoint of the consumer, as to the advantages and dis-
advantages of electric light and power made applicable, in his case, to the
many mechanical services required of it at the Selby Smelting Works. This
paper proved of considerable interest and was discussed by R. W. Myers
and F. P. Medina.
Mr. Frank P. Medina read a paper entitled "Engineering and the Law,"
a subject that caused a discussion of some length.
Meeting adjourned.
20 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
December 2D, Evening Session. — Called to order at 8.30 o'clock p.m., by
Vice-President Franklin Riffle.
The first paper of the evening was read by Mr. Edward T. Hewitt,
who chose, for his subject, "Trade Schools and their Application," going
exhaustively into the phases of the modern training of youth on the principle
of producing men fitted for the practical pursuits of life.
This paper was discussed, from various points of view, by Mr. Geo.
W. Dickie, Professor C. B. Wing, Mr. Orion Brooks, Mr. Marsden Manson,
by the chief instructor of the Drawing Department of the Humboldt Even-
ing School, by Professor Durand, of Stanford University, and by the author,
Mr. Hewitt, who defended his position that the schools filled a requirement
that had long been- felt, that they were successful wherever introduced, and
that they are now an established fact, until something still better can be
found to replace them.
A paper by Mr. John Richards, past President of the Society, entitled
"Phenomena of Machine Operation," was read by the Secretary. The sub-
ject was afterward discussed by Mr. Thomas Morrin and by Professor
Durand, of Stanford University.
Meeting adjourned.
December 3D, Afternoon Session.— Called to order at 2 o'clock p.m., by
Vice-President Franklin Riffle.
The following papers were read by their respective authors and dis-
cussed by attending members :
"Durability of the Materials of Masonry Used in San Francisco," by
Marsden Manson.
"Collimating and Azimuthing a Modern Gun," by Otto von Geldern.
Meeting adjourned.
December 3D, Evening Session. — A banquet was given by the Society
at the Occidental Hotel, and was largely attended by the members and their
ladies.
Opening Remarks by the President, G. W. Dickie.
It is very pleasant for us hard workers to sit down to dinner together
on a Saturday night. We technical men have much in common that draws
us together for the reading and discussion of papers relating to our work,
but as a rule we fail in social accomplishments. Even on a night like this,
with ladies present, we take our dinner rather seriously. This is a part of
our training that has been sadly neglected.
The technical man needs a broader education than he generally succeeds
in getting. A steady practice of our profession tends to narrow the man. He
lives and moves and has his being in cast iron and steel, stone masonry and
earth dams, and often other kinds of dam(n)s that we cannot indulge in to-
night, so that his whole life gets set into a rigid mold, out of which he can-
not extricate himself.
A dear old engineer friend of mine, who stands high in his profession,
has allowed himself to fall into very profane habits of speech. One day,
I tried to reason with him about it, showing how terribly handicapped he
was by his unfortunate habit. "I know it," he said, "better than you can
PROCEEDINGS. 21
tell me. If I had only learned poetry when young, as you did, it would
have been better for me. Poetry is far more effective than swearing."
My friend was quite right about this. I remember, when serving my
apprenticeship in the locomotive shops of the North British Railway (I
would not like to say, in the presence of so many fair ladies, how long ago
this might be, but last century was just about in its prime then), I was at
the time working with a man named Robert Sproule under an engine. I was
holding up the eccentric rod for him to put in the link pin, when an in-
spiration came on him and he started in to recite from "Marmion" :
"The war that for a space did fail,
Now trebly thundering, swelled the gale,
And Stanley was the cry."
Just at that point the foreman stopped him, with the statement that he
was of no use except for a play-actor, and he thought of giving him an
opportunity to follow that profession. Poor Robert was stunned for an
instant, but soon recovered, and catching the eye of the foreman, remarked
quietly, "That is very true, Mr. Brown, but—
"Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark, unfathomed caves of Ocean bear;
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen
And waste its sweetness on the desert air."
The poor foreman was completely discomfited and Robert remained at his
work, victorious. Swearing is not in it with poetry.
I hope such meetings will help us in softening the hard spots in our
professional experience, rendering us more fit to take our places in the best
society of men and women, which, after all, is the better part of life.
I believe that we shall have our next dinner somewhere else than in
San Francisco. I do not know where that may be, but somehow our spring
meeting next year will, I hope, be held in some other town of the Pacific
Coast.
It is very pleasant to look around this table and see so many kind
people, whose faces call up memories of other faces that are not with us.
Some are done with all work, but their memory lingers with us and we
think of them to-night; others are kept from us by business reasons, and
some are in other lands. We think of them all at this time, and I will call
on Mr. Marsden Manson to speak to us on their behalf.
"Our Absent Friends," By Marsden Manson.
Mr. Marsden Manson, in responding to the toast "Our Absent Friends,"
referred to the following members of the Society, and spoke feelingly of
each one, relating, in an interesting manner, the causes that had taken
them all over the world, to work, through their profession, in the interests
of humanity :
H. C. Behr, Consulting Engineer in Johannesburg, South Africa.
A. B. Bowers, traveling in the interest of his dredging machines.
C. E. Grunsky, Isthmian Canal Commissioner, in Washington or
Panama.
22 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
J. B. Hobson, Mining Engineer in British Columbia.
Chas. F. Hoffmann, on an extensive trip in the interest of mining.
D. E. Hughes, in charge of fortification works at San Diego, Cal.
C. H. Kluegel, Railway Engineer in Hawaii.
Charles List, Resident Engineer in Cristobal, Panama.
Frederick Hellmann, Mining Engineer, Boksburg, South Africa.
Jas. D. Schuyler, Consulting Engineer, Los Angeles, Cal.
Wm. P. Smith, engaged in various engineering enterprises in Chicago,
111.
The members and friends present drank to the health and prosperity
of each one named.
"The American Society of Civil Engineers/' By C. E. Moore.
Although I see before me other members of the American Society who
might more appropriately reply on its behalf, it is fitting that these two sub-
jects, "The Civil Engineer" and "The American Society," should be com-
bined, for, although the local Societies have filled their place, yet the Ameri-
can Society has largely stood for American engineering since its organiza-
tion. It numbered, among its early members, the pioneers in the great
material development of the country.
With the rapid growth of modern applied science, engineering has be-
come to a great degree specialized, and we have the Societies of Mechanical,
Mining and Electrical Engineering, the Maintenance of Way Association, the
Waterworks Associations, and others. These were all, or nearly all, preceded
by the American Society of Civil Engineers, and possibly they may be
regarded, to a great extent, as outgrowths from it, just as the various
branches have grown out of civil engineering.
The civil engineer finds it necessary to keep in touch with all these, more
or less, according to his work, and it is hardly possible to put civil engi-
neering in a division by itself, and say, "here is civil engineering," here (in
another division) is mechanical engineering, etc., inasmuch as civil engineer-
ing embraces them all to a certain extent.
Now, in this connection, there are two or three thoughts which I shall
endeavor briefly to bring to your attention.
As we look over the field of past accomplishment, and the great
progress that has been made, we are apt to lose sight of the steps which have
made such progress possible.
It is hard to realize that about 200 years ago it was a common practice,
in certain European cities, to throw slops through the open windows into
the streets, so imperfect were the sanitary arrangements of those days ;
that there was an ordinance in the city of Edinburgh, for instance, requiring
householders to call out a warning to the people who might be passing.
It is hard to realize that, at a much more recent date, when it was proposed
to construct a railroad from Albany to Schenectady, in the State Legislature
at Albany there was great ridicule over the possibility, which was claimed
by the projectors, of running cars at the rate of 10 miles an hour over that
road. The possibility of attaining such speeds with this new contrivance
was a subject of considerable merriment among these wise legislators.
Right here is the first thought which I would make prominent. It is
not popular, and it may at first give some of you a mild shock that I should
PROCEEDINGS. 23
so far depart from the usual laudatory style of treating this subject as to
give it utterance. It is none the less true, as I think I can prove to you.
The thought is this — "that one of the most potent factors in the progress
of engineering has been disaster." My proof of this must be largely drawn
from personal experience, inasmuch as I had its truth brought home to me
some years ago with such emphasis that it has ever remained. Therefore,
you will pardon me, I know, if what follows just here tinges somewhat of
the personal.
Many of our great railroad systems grew up by combining separate
roads, built under separate management, by various companies, and various
engineers. These separate properties were later taken up by one company
and welded into one system. As regards structures particularly, these early
engineers had been working largely in untried fields. This was a transition
period, not only in the operation of railroads, but very particularly in bridge
construction. In this transition period, it was nvy fortune to be connected,
about 1880 to 1885, with one of the great systems of the Middle States.
New roads were being taken into the system, and made a part of through
lines. This was the case not only in this particular system, but in others.
On these separate roads were many styles of bridge construction. To-
day some of them would be esteemed curiosities. When they were put
under a system of rigid inspection, for heavy train loads and rapid speeds,
grave faults were often discovered. In that transition period there were
many disasters, one of which you will remember as that of Ashtabula, fol-
lowing which, Mr. Collins, the Chief Engineer of the Lake Shore Road,
shot himself while sitting at his desk in Buffalo. I am thankful to say that
personally I never came in touch with such disasters as that one; yet it
came in my way, about this time, to fish some spans out of the river into
which they had fallen, and to have broken up at the shops the large castings
used for compression members. Many of these large castings were very
defective. I have here some photographs taken at that time showing some
of the faults found.
On that road and at that time, we learned the dangers attending the use
of cast iron for such purposes. Many others were learning it at the same
time. It was evident that many of the failures had come from that cause.
The lessons were costly, but they had their influence in the adaptation
of rolled shapes for compression members, and finally in the cheapening of
steel processes, which now make it possible to use steel for all such purposes.
Now, leaving this somewhat gruesome branch of the subject, I come to
the second thought, and that is as to the kind of men who have made up
the great body of engineers and of the American Society. Whatever may
be our views of life, we must recognize, I think, that the great object, in
our being here at all, is the development of character. In this connection,
I consider the engineer to be most fortunate. He deals with the laws of
nature. He cannot ignore these laws, or evade them. He must meet them
fairly and squarely, and with honesty of purpose. He must be open to con-
viction, and be ready and willing to modify old ideas and adopt new ones.
This all tends to the development of an honest and generous nature.
If we do not get this, we have missed the point of our training.
And here I desire to say that, having had quite an extensive acquaintance
with engineers, I have all my life found them, as a class, developing those
very traits. As a class, they are free from petty selfishness ; as a class, you
may safely trust them with your private or public interests, feeling tolerably
24 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
certain that no mean advantage is to be taken, and no important duty
neglected. I do not know whether my acquaintance with engineers has been
especially fortunate, but I must say that in my experience this is the kind
of men made by such training, and I would not limit this statement to
engineers proper, but would apply it to all practical technical men — to all
who are dealing directly with the laws of nature.
"The American Navy and the Shipbuilder/'' By John G. Tawresey,
Naval Constructor, U. S. Navy.
I have enjoyed very much the privilege of attending some of your meet-
ings, and I take pleasure in being here to-night. Navy men are not speakers.
Some of them, shining examples, have got into trouble by talking too much.
Your President has mentioned some of the difficulties in building ships for
the United States Navy. There are difficulties, but we do not wish to con-
sider them to-night.
It occurs to me that technical people are much more conservative than
they are generally represented. The new design and the new scheme are
not absolutely new and revolutionary ; they are only the old principles car-
ried a step farther; the new scheme is based on something that has gone
before. Very few entirely new designs are successful. In the navy we are
so conservative that we go on using old methods even when we know that
they are wrong, for fear the new might not be any better.
The relation between the navy and technical engineers is close. The
designs for the splendid modern war ships have grown from and are based
on the general fund of information, experiment and experience, to which
all technical men are contributing, and in that sense all have shared in
making such ships possible and successful, whether engaged directly in
naval architecture or in the other branches of the engineering profession,
which all contribute indirectly to it. No one man can claim that he did it;
neither the naval officer nor the shipbuilder can take all the credit, for every
part of the design is based on something that has been done before.
It is something to be thankful for that the new navy has been produced
and has been successful in general, and that no ship has been a complete
failure. The ships built on this coast have been pre-eminently successful.
All of you can feel that you have contributed something toward producing
them. We should all be proud, as I am proud, of the new navy and the yards
in which it has been built, not the least of which is the one in your own city.
"American Society of Mechanical Engineers," By Thomas Morrin.
As a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and as
a practical engineer for over thirty years on this coast, I can say that it has
been my pleasure and duty to be connected with some of the important
work carried on upon the coast. I have witnessed a great deal of the prac-
tical improvements in nearly all of the engineering lines, embracing mining,
marine, hydraulic and electrical engineering.
When electric light and power came to the front, a few years ago, it
attracted the attention of the whole world and revolutionized the mechanical
standards of every country. It has been the greatest mechanical developer
since the time of Watt.
PROCEEDINGS. 25
The engineering profession has attracted the attention of the brightest
of our young men, and the schools and- colleges of the country are meeting
the demand for technical education in a most satisfactory manner. Professor
Sweet said to me, a few years ago, that it was particularly unfortunate that
so many of these young men were induced to leave the practical for commer-
cial pursuits, solely for monetary reasons. It matters but little, however,
which of the engineering branches the young man selects for his vocation ;
some time in his career, he will come to the mechanical engineer for assist-
ance, as there are few important works undertaken which do not require the
mechanical engineer in some part of the equipment.
Electricity has done wonders in developing the latent energy of our
men and of our country. Our worthy President has shown much of this
in the war ships he has built, and the mechanics he has turned out at the
Union Iron Works.
"The Technical Training of Youth," By Edward T. Hewitt.
Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen: — Having been asked to address the
Technical Society and its many friends gathered here this evening, on the
subject of "The Polytechnical Training of Our Youth," I wish to say that I
appreciate the honor. Instead of making an address, I shall confine myself
to a few brief remarks. The subject apparently is a very complex one,
but by analyzing it we may determine its value. Now all education, at every
stage of life, comprehends two processes — the training of powers and the
acquisition of knowledge. Childhood and youth are the times for acquiring
new mental processes and functions, and for exercising and strengthening
the memory. The important thing in childhood is, therefore, to train the
child in as large a variety of mental processes as possible and to establish
many useful mental habits.
Now, I can only sketch the barest outline as to how education is to deal
with these highly complex factors. Let us note one aspect of the relation
between science and occupation. Science teaches us to think in a clear,
logical and systematic way, putting our conclusions to the test of experi-
ment. All theory, all knowledge, all the broad groups of sciences, originany
sprang from the experience gathered by man from one or other of his
numerous occupations. Thinking has arisen from doing. Science ultimately
sprang from the desire and efforts of men to increase their skill in their
occupations by understanding the eternal principles that underlie all dealing
with nature. If science sprung from occupations, she has repaid the debt,
both by rendering those who follow her teaching more skilled in their
occupations and by actually giving rise, through her discoveries, to absolutely
new types of occupations.
Observing the men engaged in these occupations, we find different
grades of skill. One kind is the gift of nature, innate. Another kind of
skill has been developed by routine work and constant repetition, while
another kind is the product of definite scientific training.
The harmonious combination of theory and practice is shown in a very
high degree in the lives and work of great engineers. In the days of
Stephenson, Watt and Fairbairn, technical schools were practically unknown.
To-day education is the watchword; conditions are such that even the
common laborer, digging a trench, has to know how to do his work expedi-
26 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
tiously and in a workmanlike manner. In planning- for the proper education
of youth, we are forced to consider certain present conditions, but the greater
idea is to lay, at the same time, the foundations of an educational edifice
that will be utilized by the generations yet to come.
College men are entering all walks of life. Formerly the professions
were the only fields of endeavor considered by them. They now find that
their training eminently fits them for business careers.
The poor inhabitants of certain parts of our large cities were at one
time left to themselves ; charitable institutions were looked upon to help
them in their many temporary necessities. This is changing. Manual train-
ing, industrial education, domestic science and art work are being brought
into the schools. For these poor people life is now beginning to assume a
different aspect. We are helping them in a better way when we teach them
to help themselves. Gradually you will see a change in their home sur-
roundings. A study of the work being accomplished by the social settle-
ments, parental schools, juvenile courts, manual training and trade schools
will convince you that these institutions are an effective power for good.
These schools are not limited to the poor only. All phases of society de-
sire education. Youth is the time for study, later life for the application
of knowledge obtained. The many schools of industrial training, that are
open to the youth of this and other countries, are a reflex of the exacting
requirements of modern times. All that the school can do is to give our
young people such a systematic training that they may successfully carry out
their life's purpose.
"Electrical Development," by Orion Brooks.
I feel highly honored at being thought capable of doing justice to the
subject "Electrical Development," but I fear that I shall disappoint you. It
is true that I have seen the rise of electrical industries, from 1867, when four
or five men, in a little shop in this city, did all the manufacturing and repair-
ing of electrical apparatus for the whole Pacific Coast, until, about 10 years
later, I knew nearly all the persons engaged in electrical pursuits in Cali-
fornia (I don't know all such now). I have seen the growth of electrical
engineering until, like a landslide, it has overwhelmed us, and no one person
can hope to know personally more than a very few of the men engaged in
it. My chief reason for being with you this evening is that I may see
some faces new to me, but with a fellow-feeling.
Few can realize the magnitude of the electrical industry to-day, even on
this coast, where, as the editor of one of the leading electrical papers of the
East said, "We do things, while they are talking about them." It is a way
Californians have. I may be pardoned for mentioning a few San Francisco
pioneers who did some electrical things, and whose names come to mind —
Lundberg, Field, Ladd, Gamble, Greenwood, Sabin, Roe, Cornwall. At one
time, late in the seventies, I started a scrap-book, for the collection of notices
of new electrical enterprises, but the number grew so rapidly that I gave
it up as a waste of time (I had work to do). It seems but yesterday that
we had only the telegraph and a few electric bells. Next came a few electric
lights and an electric street railroad. To-day there is more capital invested
and more people employed in electrical enterprises than a good mathematician
can compute. The Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys are calling for
a network of electric railways. Electric lights are in every hamlet and farm-
PROCEEDINGS. 27
house, supplied from the watersheds of the Sierras. The steam engineer
and the horse are looking about, bewildered, for a soft spot to fall on. We
even hear propositions to operate trunk lines of railway by electric power, and
to-morrow — ?
What is this thing we call electricity? The question is old and threadbare,
but is being repeated again and again; and though, occasionally, someone
seems to be almost on the point of drawing aside the curtain, the scene
shifts and we are little if any wiser than before. The subject is too broad
and deep for an after-dinner speech. What subject is larger?
I am glad to be with you to-night, and will not weary you further.
Good evening.
"Our New Territory, Hawaii," By. M. M. O'Shaughnessy.
Looking at a map of the world, the islands of Hawaii do not occupy
much spacer — in fact, one would need a magnifying glass to recognize many
of them — yet problems of great interest have been there thrashed out, until
it can be truly said that Hawaii has the best developed irrigation system in
the world, and much of this is due to members of this Society who have
lent their services to its development in the past. Among others, I may
mention the names of Mr. Schuyler and the late Mr. Allardt, who first
reported on the Oahu artesian supply, fifteen years ago. Mr. Kluegel has also
been closely identified with engineering projects for the last 20 years.
The main industry of Hawaii is sugar, of which it will raise this year
about 400,000 tons, worth $32,00,000, from an arable area of 150,000 acres,
or about the size of one county in the State of California. This is about
double the value of the wheat crop of the whole State.
Too much praise cannot be given to the white race in the tropics for
developing a non-productive country of 30 years ago to its present advanced
stage of prosperity.
The islands are very steep, having mountains in the center, from 3000
to 10,000 feet high, with all the arable land near the seashore, below an
elevation of 500 feet.
The trade winds from the ocean make the rainfall very local in its
character, one side of an island, such as Maui, having over 300 inches average
annual rainfall, while, 30 miles distant on the same island, the precipitation
is only 10 inches.
The work with which I have been specially identified consisted in
taking water from belts of heavy precipitation to the dry and warm ones,
suitable for sugar-cane growing. Over 25 miles of tunnel aqueduct, carrying
from 30,000,000 to 90,000,000 gallons per 24 hours, have been constructed in
the past 2 years, to carry water from the mountain sections to the cane land
belt.
At least eight plantations have daily water supplies, from pumps and
gravity, of 60,000,000 gallons each, while the daily consumption of San
Francisco is only 30,000,000 gallons, which will give you a conception of the
magnitude of the water development in Hawaii.
There are about 60 plantations, owned by private corporations, engaged
in the sugar business and each has its separate water supply, its transporta-
tion system for hauling cane to the mill, and its sugar factory, nearly all
of which are the product of the machine shops of the mainland.
Hawaii is proverbially hospitable, and, should our Society decide to
28 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
hold a meeting under its balmy semi-tropic influence, I can confidently pre-
dict a generous and cordial welcome from all the people of Honolulu and the
islands, whose motto is always "aloha," or welcome to the stranger.
"The Engineer's Holiday/' By A. T. Hermann.
This is surely the holiday for the engineers, and I am delighted to see
it so well attended by my fellow-craftsmen and many of their wives and
daughters. My son, I am proud to say, was smart enough to bring his wife
along, and if I had but known what a fine company I was to meet here,
I should have brought my wife also.
In years gone by, when friend von Geldern sent me the usual invitations,
I could not see how I could possibly spare the time for any holiday, be it
ever so short, for we — we — the engineers of California — were busy and
hard at work, building up this magnificent State, planning its grand improve-
ments, developing its resources ; in fine, making it what you, my younger
friends and classmates, see it to-day.
And it is good to look at, this grand California of ours, especially when
you have known it in its nearly original state, and know that you have
honestly helped to make it what it is. Look around : Is there anything more
beautiful than this incomparable Bay of San Francisco, with the queen of the
Pacific holding court and revelry at the entrance, commanding and absorbing
the trade of the vast Pacific, and enriching her people beyond measure? with
the shores of the bay dotted, from one end to the other, with flourishing
cities, towns, villages, factories and villas without number, and lined in
every direction by the steel bands that span the continent and connect us
with the East, the scream of the iron horse forever intermingling with the
roaring whistle of the palatial ferries, which, day and night, serve unceasingly
in the immense traffic and travel of our people?
Truly, California is a great State; her people are well off, bountifully
provided with all that man craves, blessed by the finest climate of the
world. They should be croud of their magnificent State and proud of their
achievements and of the State's unprecedented development.
And we — we engineers — know that w(e have done our share, nay more
than our share, of this good work, and hence we deserve, fully deserve,
this, our annual, our only, holiday. Hence let us enjoy it to the fullest meas-
ure, and never again begrudge the time spent for it.
And when it is done — to-morrow — let us return to our usual work;
let us again give our best thoughts, our best energies, to the development
of our beloved State ; let us be true to the grand principles and aims of our
profession; and, when the last hour comes, when our individual work is
done, let us look fearlessly into the face of the great unknown, and leave
our work to our younger successors. Then, let us lie down to the last rest,
the final holiday of the engineer, rocked to the sleep that knows no awaking,
by the lullaby of the waves of the grand Pacific.
The autumnal meeting of the Technical Society was declared adjourned
by President Dickie, who announced that the next meeting would be held in
the spring of 1905, and he also expressed the sincere wish to meet each and
every one again in good health and spirits on the next occasion.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
PROCEEDINGS. 29
Regular Meeting, San Francisco, Cal., January 6, 1005. — Called to
order at 8.30 o'clock p.m., by Vice-President Franklin Riffle.
The minutes of the autumnal meeting, of each session in regular order,
were read and approved.
The Secretary referred to the fourth quarterly assessment payable to
the Association of Engineering Societies, and read certain letters of Mr.
John C. Trautwine, Jr., Secretary of the Association, in explanation of the
high rate of one dollar for said quarter. The expenses of publication had
increased considerably, and in order to meet them it was found necessary
to make the fourth quarterly assessment for the year one dollar per mem-
ber, making the total assessment, for 1904, two dollars and fifty cents, in-
stead of two dollars, which had been the annual total since the year 1899,
or making the average quarterly assessment, for 1904, 62J/2 cents instead of
50 cents.
Upon motion, the Treasurer was instructed to pay the bill, amounting to
$172, expressing the hope that the old rates will hereafter prevail.
The Nominating Committee, appointed at the last regular meeting of
December, reported, through its Chairman, Mr. Marsden Manson, that the
following ticket for officers of the Society to serve during the year 1905
had been selected by unanimous choice :
For President — George W. Dickie.
For Vice-President — Franklin Riffle.
For Secretary — Otto von Geldern.
For Treasurer — Edward T. Schild.
For Directors — Hermann Barth, H. D. Connick, E. J. Molera, Carl
Uhlig, George H. Wallis.
The Secretary was instructed to have the ticket printed and distributed
for the annual meeting, January 20, 1905, when the election will take place.
For tellers, the Chair appointed Mr. Adolf Lietz and Mr. H. A. Brigham.
The Secretary read the following communications — one a letter written
by him to the Trustees of the Mechanics' Institute in reference to the library,
and the other a report of the Library Committee of the Institute to the
Trustees as a reply to the request made by the Technical Society:
"Technical Society of the Pacific Coast,
"San Francisco, October 10, 1904.
"To the Trustees of the Mechanics'" Institute,
"San Francisco, Cal.
"Sirs. — At a meeting of the Technical Society, held October 7th, the
matter of building up a good technical library, the need of which has fre-
quently become manifest in San Francisco, was discussed, and the Secretary
was instructed to communicate with your Board for the purpose of ascertain-
ing your inclination toward a proposition that a committee from the Tech-
nical Society be permitted to act with your Library Committee in the matter
of suggesting and arranging lists of such technical literature as that looked
for by the profession constantly.
"Much of the engineering: literature may be obtained in the shape of
valuable reports that may be had for the mere asking, and in the transac-
tions of the many societies, domestic and foreign, in which the most vital
technical discussions are published.
30 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
"The Society thinks that the accession of a good engineering library
and the setting aside of a certain space or room for that special purpose
would be greatly appreciated, and that it could not fail to be of direct benefit.
And, while the members of the Technical Society feel that the Trustees are
doing all they can in the purchase of technical literature, the thought has
suggested itself to them that you might perhaps look favorably upon any
co-operation from the Technical Society to increase the scope and usefulness
of the engineering library.
"If this should meet with your favor, we will suggest three names of
men having special professional lines — that is, an expert electrical engineer,
an expert mechanical and a civil engineer; these three men to be men of
learning and book, experience, whose advice in engineering literature could
be counted upon as valuable.
"The underlying principle of this suggestion is to work toward a com-
mon interest, and that is to make the Mechanics' Library the only institution
of its kind in the State where the mechanic may go and find, upon it shelves,
the information required to increase his professional knowledge ; and to
make this information readily obtainable at some place or room of the
Library specifically set aside for the purpose.
"All that the Technical Society wants to do is to help you in attaining
this desirable end for the benefit of the Institute.
"Will you kindly let us hear your views on this subject, and whether
this proposition is at all acceptable?
"Very truly yours,
"George W. Dickie, President,
"per Otto von Geldern, Secretary."
"Mechanics' Institute,
"San Francisco, December 6, 1004.
"To the Board of Trustees,
"Mechanics' Institute.
"Your Committee on Library reports as follows :
"Your Library Committee has considered the communication received
from the Technical Society of this city, dated October 10, 1904, through its
Secretary, Mr. Otto von Geldern. Your Committee is in hearty accord with
the views expressed by the Technical Society, and will be pleased in the
future, as we have been in the past, to do all that is possible to bring about
the desirable result suggested.
"The building up of a good technical library is our aim as well as it
is our aim to build up a valuable library on other subjects.
"Your Committee appreciates keenly the value of the suggestion that
a committee of three be formed of the members of the Technical Society
with a view to giving us the benefit of their experience and acknowledged
familiarity with the subject in hand.
"Such a committee could prepare, from time to time, a list of the books
that should be purchased by the Institute on technological subjects; and
such list, with their recommendations, might be presented, either through
the committee itself or through its Secretary, to our Librarian, whose duty
it is to prepare, for this Board, a list of all books that are considered of
value to us and to all of our members. The Library Committee will at all
PROCEEDINGS. 31
times give careful consideration to any suggestions from the committee of
the Technical Society.
"The suggestion of the Technical Society, that the books pertaining to
the engineering department be set aside and placed in some room, has
already been carefully considered, and such books are now placed in the
west wing of the second floor of the library, and further concentration of
these books and such books as may be purchased in the future of a similar
character will be considered and acted upon from time to time as the con-
dition of the library may permit.
"At the present time, however, we do not see our way clear to make
any radical change from the classification that we have at present.
"This matter, however, will be kept constantly in mind, and the sug-
gestion of the Technical Society in this regard will be carried out as' soon
as it may be possible to do so.
"Your Committee further recommends that our Secretary be instructed
to forward a copy of this report to the Technical Society through its Secre-
tary for its information.
"Respectfully,
"(Signed) Geo. Beanston,
"Luther Wagoner,
Library Committee."
Mr. John B. Leonard referred to the present status of reinforced con-
crete construction in San Francisco, and spoke of the difficulty encountered
in attempting to introduce it. He stated that many of the interested organi-
zations and unions were antagonistic to this method of construction, and that
only united action by a number of prominent societies, to offset the de-
termined efforts of those opposed, could hold out any hope of winning the
municipal government to a favorable consideration of this important sub-
ject.
He therefore moved that a committee of four be appointed to act in
conjunction with similar committees from the San Francisco Chapter of the
American Institute of Architects, and from the Contractors' Association,
for the purpose of making a most serious, earnest and determined effort to
effect such changes in the municipal building ordinances as to permit the
erection of reinforced or steel-armored concrete walls, floors and partitions,
in accordance with regulations to control and safeguard this economic and
useful method of construction, which has been employed almost everywhere
with great success, and which is retarded in this city by those who are
directly interested in handling or manufacturing conventional materials in
vogue.
The Society having expressed its hearty approval of taking a direct
stand in this important matter, the Chairman appointed the following com-
mittee with full power to act with the other committees referred to by Mr.
Leonard : Mr. Howard C. Holmes, Chairman ; Mr. E. J. Molera, Mr. Maurice
Couchot, Mr. Otto von Geldern.
The Secretary read a communication from Mr. Carlos List, giving an
interesting account of the work in progress at Panama, and of the general
conditions existing on the Isthmus, its political aspect, and present satis-
factory state.
The following applications for membership were received and referred
to the usual committee for approval :
14
32 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
FOR MEMBERS.
Arthur L. Adams, Consulting Engineer, San Francisco. Proposed by
Lee S. Griswold, R. W. Myers, A. Ballantyne and Otto von Geldern.
Russell Chase, Civil Engineer, Southern Pacific Company. Proposed
by H. A. Noble, H. I. Randall and Adolf Lietz.
FOR ASSOCIATE MEMBER.
William H. Alderson, Civil Engineer, graduate of University of Cali-
fornia. Proposed by A. Ballantyne, R. W. Myers and Otto von Geldern.
The meeting' thereupon adjourned.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
Annual Meeting, San Francisco, January 20, 1905. — Called to order
at 8.30 o'clock p.m., by Vice-President Franklin Riffle.
The tellers, appointed by the Chair at the last regular meeting, pro-
ceeded to open the ballots sent in for the annual election, and reported that
fifty-eight votes had been cast and that all were in favor of the regular
ticket as nominated.
The Chairman thereupon declared the following elected as officers and
directors of the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast for the year 1905 :
President — George W. Dickie.
Vice-President — Franklin Riffle.
Secretary — Otto von Geldern.
Treasurer — E. T. Schild.
Directors — Hermann Barth, H. D. Connick, E. J. Molera, Carl Uhlig,
George H. Wallis.
The Secretary and Treasurer submitted their annual reports, which were
read and ordered received and spread upon the minutes as a record of the
Society. The meeting thereupon adjourned.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
Annual Report of the Secretary for the Year 1904.
I have the honor to submit to the Society, through its Board of Direc-
tors, the following report, containing also that of the Treasurer, showing
the condition of the Society on January 20, 1905, the date of the regular
annual meeting :
The present total membership is 173, as follows:
Honorary members 2 Associates 19
Life members 3
Members 149 Total 173
Of these 106 are resident members,
18 are resident associates, and
49 are non-resident members and associates.
Total, 173
PROCEEDINGS.
33
Geographically distributed, there are, in :
San Francisco and vicinity 124
Northern California 15
Southern California 11
Arizona 2
Colorado 1
District of Columbia 3
Hawaii 3
Illinois 1
Nevada 2
New York 2
Oregon 1
Washington
Utah
Kansas
Foreign.
Africa 2
British Columbia 1
Philippine Islands 1
Panama 1
Total 173
Professionally divided, there are :
Architects 10 Mechanical engineers 29
Builders 9 Military engineers 4
Chemists 2 Mining engineers 10
Civil engineers 76 Naval architects 1
Draughtsmen 4 University professors 5
Electrical engineers 5 Surveyors 8
Instrument makers 2
Manufacturers 8 Total 173
Admissions in 1904:
By election — By reinstatement —
Members IS Members 2
Associates 2 Total 19
Membership of the Society at the end of the year 1903 :
Members and associates 158
Admissions in 1904 19
Total on membership list during the past year 177
Loss during the year 1904:
By death 1 Carried on membership list dur-
By resignations ■. . . . 2 ing 1904 177
By suspension 1 Loss 4
Present membership 173
Total 4 Gain during 1904 15
Deaths during 1904 :
C. J. Wheeler, Chemist, Pacific Portland Cement Co.
During the year the Society added to its membership the following:
By election :
Members.
Hugh C. Banks, Civil Engineer, San Francisco. Cal.
James C. Bennett, Mechanical Engineer, Oakland, Cal.
J. W. Carey, Architect, San Francisco, Cal.
W. J. Cuthbertson, Architect, San Francisco, Cal.
34 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Robert McF. Doble, Civil Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
Major C. E. Gillette, Military Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
Lee S. Griswold, Civil Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
Chas. E. Moore, Civil Engineer, Santa Clara, Cal.
Chas. H. Parcell, Civil Engineer, Sausalito, Cal.
Ralph E. Parker, Civil Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
0. Holmer Phelps, Civil Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
Robert Schorr, Mechanical Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
C. H. Snyder, Civil Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
Eugene T. Thurston, Civil Engineer, Oakland, Cal.
C. J. Wheeler, Chemist, Solano, Cal.
Associates.
Chas. S. Girvan, Manager Coal Co., San Francisco, Cal.
W. F. Roloff, Mining Superintendent, San Francisco, Cal.
By reinstatement:
Members.
Howard C. Holmes, Civil Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
J. C. H. Stut, Mechanical Engineer, San Francisco, Cal.
Suspensions during the year 1904:
J. S. Walker, Perth, West Australia.
Honorary Members.
Colonel C. Seaforth Stewart, Washington, D. C.
Commodore Theodore D. Wilson, Washington, D. C.
Life Members.
George W. Dickie, San Francisco, Cal.
George H. Evans, Colorado.
E. J. Molera, San Francisco, Cal.
The following subjects were read and discussed officially during the
year:
1. Radium and Radio- Activity, by Professor Edward Booth.
2. Synthetic Philosophy of Herbert Spencer, by Mr. F. P. Medina.
3. The Rise and Fall of the American Merchant Marine and Progress
in Ship Design and Construction, by Mr. Joseph R. Oldham, N. A.
4. The Laying of the Pacific Commercial Cable, by Mr. Frank P.
Medina.
5. Steam Turbine Motors, by Mr. John Richards.
6. Jet Pumps — New and Original Theoretical Developments, by Pro-
fessor F. G. Hesse.
7. The Reclamation of a Mountain Swamp, by Mr. Marsden Manson.
8. Pipes and Joints for High Pressures, by Mr. Franklin Riffle.
9. Vertical Railway Curves, by Mr. H. I. Randall.
10. Armored Concrete Construction, by Mr. M. C. Couchot.
11. Skeleton Steel and Hollow Concrete Blocks Construction, by Mr.
S. Giletti.
PROCEEDINGS. 35
12. Experiments in Driving Piles for a Foundation with a Steam
Hammer, by Mr. J. J. Welsh.
13. Consideration of Uplift as Affecting the Design of Masonry Dams,
by Professor Chas. D. Marx.
14. Portland Cement Manufacture, by C. J. Wheeler.
15. Collection and Discussion of Material in County Highway Bridges,
by Professor C. B. Wing.
16. The Removal of Shag Rock and Arch Rock in San Francisco
Harbor, by Mr. H. L. Demeritt.
17. Pumice as a Building Material, by Mr. H. A. Diehl.
18. Hydro-Electric Power Development and Transmission in Cali-
fornia, by Mr. Robert McF. Doble.
19. Electric Power Generation and Transmission from the Standpoint
of the Consumer, by Mr. James C. Bennett.
20. Engineering and the Law, by Mr. Frank P. Medina.
21. Trade Schools, by Mr. Edward T. Hewitt.
22. Phenomena of Machine Operation, by Mr. John Richards.
23. Durability of the Materials of Masonry Used in San Francisco, by
Mr. Marsden Manson.
24. Adjustment of Modern Armament, by Mr. Otto von Geldern.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
Report of the Treasurer for the Year 1904.
Cash in bank January 1, 1004 $649.89
Cash on hand January 1, 1004 21
$650.10
Received during the year to January 7, 1905 1,408.17
$2,058.27
Expended during the year to January 7, 1905 $1,538-95
Cash in bank January 7, 1905 $474-52
Cash on hand, January 7, 1905 44.80
5I9-32
The receipts are as follows : $2,058.27
Cash in bank January 1, 1904 $649.89
Cash on hand January 1, 1904 21
$650.10
Dues collected 060.67
Seventeen admission fees 85.00
Two diplomas 3-5°
Banquet tickets collected 359°°
$2,058.27
The expenditures are as follows :
Postage, stationery and mailing $161.95
Printing and typewriting 220.10
Salary of Secretary 180.00
Collection percentage 79-4°
36 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Assessments to Association, 165 members at $2.50 $412.50
Dues to Mechanics' Institute 1300
Booth lecture 10.00
Lantern illustration 10.00
Illustrations drawn for the spring meeting papers 25.00
Excursions, spring meeting, tug and car 48.00
Rent of Academy of Sciences Hall 20.00
Expenses of two banquets :
Reserved plates and seats $318.00
Flowers for table 7.00
Printing and stenographing 34.00
359-00
$1,538.95
Cash in bank January 7, 1905 $474.52
Cash on hand January 7, 1905 44.80
519-32
$2,058.27
E. T. Schild, Treasurer.
San Francisco, February 3, 1905. — A meeting of the Board of Direc-
tors in lieu of the regular meeting, which was omitted.
The Board was called to order by President Geo. W. Dickie.
The following committees were appointed :
Executive Committee — Vice-President Franklin Riffle and Directors E.
J. Molera, Carl Uhlig and H. D. Connick.
Finance Committee — Directors George H. Wallis, Hermann Barth and
E. T. Schild.
Members of the Board of Managers of the Association of Engineering
Societies — President George W. Dickie and Secretary Otto Von Geldern.
The reports of the Secretary and Treasurer were read and approved.
The proposed spring meeting, to be held in May or June, was discussed
at length by the Directors, and it was generally agreed to hold it in Portland,
Oregon, during the Lewis and Clark Exposition. The Secretary was in-
structed to circulate preliminary notices of this coming event, and to call
for professional papers to be read at the meeting.
The name of Past President John Richards was proposed for honorary
membership in the Society and unanimously recommended for ballot, to take
place at the March meeting.
The President agreed to deliver a popular lecture before the March
meeting of the Society, entitled "The Man and the Ship," which the Sec-
retary was instructed to announce in due time.
The salary of the Secretary and the collectors' percentages, at the usual
rate, were ratified to remain as they were during the past year. The dues
of the Secretary and Treasurer were also remitted, as has been the custom
heretofore.
Meeting adjourned.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
PROCEEDINGS. 37
Regular Meeting, San Francisco, Cal., March 3, 1905. — A meeting
of the Board of Directors was held preceding the meeting of the evening.
The reading of the minutes of the previous meeting was ordered omitted.
The Secretary announced the death of a member of the Technical
Society, Mr. Burr Bassell, of Los Angeles. He referred to the prominent
standing of Mr. Bassell as an engineer, and to the loss sustained by the
Society through this untimely death.
The President appointed a committee, consisting of Mr. James D. Schuyler
and the Secretary, to draw up suitable resolutions of respect in memory of
the deceased member.
After a count of ballots, the President declared the following elections :
1. As honorary member — Past President John Richards.
2. As member — C. S. Freeland, assistant engineer, Southern Pacific
Company.
The Secretary was instructed to notify these gentlemen of their election.
Mr. George W. Dickie, President, thereupon read a paper entitled "The
Man and the Ship," which constituted the principal feature of the evening's
interesting and instructive program.
Meeting adjourned.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
38 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Twenty-third Annual Dinner.
The twenty-third annual dinner of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers
was held at the Hotel Vendome, Boston, Tuesday evening, February 28, 1905,
and was attended by 126 members and guests. An informal reception was
held at 6 and the dinner was served at 7 o'clock.
At the after-dinner speaking, the President of the Society, Frederick
Brooks, acted as toastmaster, and introduced the following speakers : Mr.
John C. Trautwine, Jr., Secretary of the Association of Engineering Societies;
Rev. Charles F. Dole, President of the Twentieth Century Club ; Commander
Elliot Snow, Naval Constructor, U. S. N. ; John W. Ellis, Director, American
Society of Civil Engineers ; Albert E. Leach, Analyst of the Massachusetts
State Board of Health ; Col. W. S. Stanton, U. S. A., Engineer Officer sta-
tioned at Boston; Lewis M. Hastings, Chairman, Sanitary Section of the
Society; Desmond FitzGerald, Past President of the American Society of
Civil Engineers ; J. Emery Harriman, Jr., Civil Engineer, of Boston ; and
Henry Manley, Past President of the Society.
Among the other guests of the Society were: Walter B. Leach, Presi-
dent of the New England Railroad Club; Charles W. Parks, Civil Engineer
at U. S. Navy Yard, Charlestown; Prof. George H. Barton, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology; Judge James R. Dunbar, of Boston; Edward A.
Church, and Fred E. Ellis. Music was furnished by the Albion Quartette
of Boston.
Sanitary Section.
Boston, Mass., March i, 1905. — The annual meeting of the Sanitary
Section of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers was held at Tremont
Temple, Wednesday, March 1, 1905, at 7.30 o'clock p. m., Vice-Chairman H.
P. Eddy in the chair. Thirty-eight members and guests were present.
The annual report of the Executive Committee was read by the clerk,
and a verbal report was made by the Chairman of the Committee on Uniform
Statistics of Sewer Construction and Maintenance.
On motion of Mr. E. S. Larned, it was voted that a committee of three
be appointed by the Chair to retire and bring in the names of three can-
didates for each office to be filled. The committee, consisting of E. S.
Larned, I. T. Farnham and X. H. Goodnoueh, brought in the required
nominations, and a ballot being taken, the following, receiving the highest
number of votes, were declared elected :
Chairman — Harrison P. Eddy.
Vice-Chairman — Charles R. Felton.
Clerk — William S. Johnson.
Members of Executive Committee — Freeman C. Coffin, Leonard Metcalf
and Arthur D. Marble.
Messrs. A. L. Fales and R. K. Porter were elected members of the
Section.
A paper on "Timber Tunneling in Quicksand" was read by R. K.
Porter, of Newton, and discussed by the members present.
William S. Johnson, Clerk.
PROCEEDINGS. 39
Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the Sanitary Section.
Boston, March 1, 1905.
The Executive Committee is pleased to report that the first year of the
Section has been one of great prosperity. The Section held its first meeting
in February, 1904, 13 months ago, and it now has enrolled in its membership
149 persons, of whom 134 are also members of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers and 15 have membership in the Section only. During the 13
months there have been six meetings and one excursion.
The subjects discussed at the meetings and the principal speakers have
been as follows :
February 3, 1904; special meeting; 120 persons present. Subject, "The
Use of the Septic Tank in Sewage Disposal Works." Discussed by Frank
A. Barbour, George E. Boiling, H. P. Eddy, X. H. Goodnough, H. W.
Clark, L. P. Kinnicutt, R. W. Pratt, A. J. Gavett, C.-E. A. Winslow, F. Her-
bert Snow and D. C. Moriarta.
March 2, 1904; annual meeting; 88 persons present. Subject, "The
Cleaning and Flushing of Sewers." Discussed by J. L. Woodfall, W. D.
Hubbard, Charles R. Felton, Dana P. Libby, Bertram Brewer, W. C.
Parmley, E. S. Dorr and F. H. Snow.
April 13, 1904; special meeting; 70 persons present. Subject, a con-
tinuation of the discussion begun at the previous meeting, by W. D. Hunter,
H. P. Eddy, George A. Wetherbee, A. C. Townsend, E. W. Branch, W. H.
Paterson, A. A. Adams and E. C. Frost.
June 4, 1904; excursion to the sewage disposal works at Framingham
and Worcester; 23 members present.
October 12, 1904; regular meeting; 52 persons present. Paper by M. N.
Baker, entitled "A Recent Visit to Twenty-Four British Sewage Works."
Discussed by L. P. Kinnicutt, H. W. Clark and others.
January 4, 1905; regular meeting; 40 persons present. Paper by F. A.
Barbour, entitled "The Sewage Disposal Works at Saratoga, N. Y." Dis-
cussed by D. C. Moriarta and others.
February 1, 1905; regular meeting; 55 persons present. Paper by W. C.
Parmley, on "The Use of Concrete in Sewer Construction." Followed by a
general discussion.
The maximum number present at any of the meetings has been 120, the
minimum number 40 and the average 71. We find from the last annual
report of the Board of Government of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers
that with a membership of nearly 600, the maximum attendance at the
meetings was 130, the minimum 35 and the average 81. This comparison
is introduced to indicate the interest taken in the meetings of the Section.
The policy of holding a dinner previous to the meeting has, so far,
proved to be a wise one. It has stimulated sociability at the meetings, and it
has especially attracted the out-of-town members, who at all of the meetings
have been well represented. The desirability, however, of having permanent
quarters in a building where dinners can be served is very obvious. With
the Society in such a house, opportunity for social intercourse would be
still further increased and the expense of the dinners would be reduced
very materially. It is to be hoped, from the standpoint of the Sanitary
40 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Section at least, that the present agitation in regard to new quarters for
the Society may result in obtaining such accommodations.
The papers and discussions presented at the meetings have been
eminently practical, and those at the two meetings devoted to the cleaning
and flushing of sewers have brought out a great number of points of prac-
tical experience in the maintenance of sewerage systems which are not
found in the text-books or other publications, and the information obtained at
these meetings alone would justify the establishment of the Section. A
stenographer has been present at every meeting and all of the papers and
discussions have been or are to be printed in the Journal of the Associa-
tion of Engineering Societies.
The Committee on Uniform Statistics of Sewer Construction and Mainte-
nance, although not yet ready to report, has nearly perfected a scheme for
uniform accounts, which, if adopted by the Section, will be of great service
to those interested in sewerage systems everywhere.
For the Executive Committee,
William S. Johnson, Clerk.
Boston, Mass., March 15, 1905. — The annual meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple,
at 7.45 o'clock p.m., President Frederick Brooks in the chair. Sixty-two
members and visitors present.
The record of the last regular meeting was read and approved.
Messrs. Henry P. Drake and James A. Moyer were elected members of
the Society.
On motion of Mr. Miner, of the Committee on Excursions, the thanks
of the Society were voted to Mr. C. H. Eddy and Mr. F. A. Foss for
courtesies extended to the Society this afternoon on the occasion of the
visit of members to Chickering & Sons' Piano Factory.
The Secretary reported for the Board of Government that it had in-
vestigated the project for the consideration of matters of municipal im-
provement in connection with representatives of several other organizations
which was referred to it by the Society at the last meeting. The Board thinks
that under the present circumstances it is inexpedient for the Society as a
body to take any action. The report was accepted.
The Secretary read the annual report of the Board of Government and,
on motion, it was accepted and placed on file.
The Treasurer read his annual report and, on motion, it was accepted
and placed on file.
The Secretary read his annual report, which was also accepted and
placed on file.
Mr. Adams, for the Committee on Excursions, read the annual report of
that committee, which was accepted and placed on file.
The Librarian read the annual report of the Committee on the Library,
which was accepted and placed on file.
Mr. E. W. Howe made a verbal report for the Committee on Adver-
tisements.
PROCEEDINGS. 41
The Committee on Quarters submitted its report in print, which was
read by its Secretary, Mr. W. S. Johnson.
Mr. A. H. Howland objected to receiving the report because he did
not consider that the Society had authorized the Board of Government in
reappointing the committee to increase the number of its members. The
President ruled that the Society could receive the repOrt, and, upon an appeal
being taken from the ruling, the Chair was sustained. Mr. E. W. Howe
stated that he did not concur in the recommendation contained in the report
of the committee. On motion, it was then voted to accept the report and
place it on file.
The tellers of election, Messrs. Clifford Foss and Frank T. Daniels,
submitted the result of the letter ballot, and, in accordance with their report,
the following officers were declared elected:
President — John W. Ellis.
Vice-President (for two years) — Freeman C. Coffin.
Secretary — S. Everett Tinkham.
Treasurer — Edward W. Howe.
Librarian — Frank P. McKibben.
Director (for two years) — Edward F. Miller.
A discussion then took place as to sending a copy of the report of the
Committee on Quarters to each member of the Society, as to assigning a
meeting at which it should be discussed and as to calling for a letter ballot
on the matter.
It was finally voted, on motion of Mr. Manley, that the matter of the
report of the Committee on Quarters be referred to the Board of Govern-
ment.
On motion of Mr. McKibben, it was voted to appropriate the sum of
$75 for the purchase of standard engineering books, this sum to include
the purchase of the "Transactions of the Engineering Congress" held at
St. Louis last October.
On motion of Mr. Higgins, it was voted : That the Board of Govern-
ment be authorized to appoint any standing and special committee that
may be needed to properly conduct the business or protect the interests of
the Society, and to select the numbers and members thereof.
President Brooks used the occasion of the closing of his term of office
to address the Society upon "Some Changes in Arithmetic to Decimal
Reckoning." He explained the superseding of the sexagesimal fractional
system by decimal fractions in tables of trigonometric functions about 400
years ago, and spoke more briefly of the superseding of pounds, shillings
and pence by dollars and cents in the money of the United States during the
last century. Referring to the introduction of the metric system of weights
and measures still more recently, he proposed to send to the members in-
dividually copies of the January, 1905, report of the Decimal Association
of London. He spoke of the introduction, as yet only partial, of the centesi-
mal division of arc and angle in place of the ancient sexagesimal subdivision,
and he pointed out some of the problems and difficulties which would
arise in the attempt to substitute a decimal time-reckoning for the existing
customary practice.
Adjourned.
S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
42 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Annual Report of the Board of Government for the Year 1904-1905.
Boston, March 15, 1005.
To the Members of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers :
In compliance with the requirements of the constitution, the Board
of Government submits its report for the year ending March 15, 1905.
At the last annual meeting, the total membership of the Society was 528,
of whom 518 were members, 2 honorary members and 8 associates. At that
time, 4 members of the Sanitary Section had completed their membership.
During the year we have lost 18 members : 6 by resignation, 6 by forfeiture
of membership for- non-payment of dues, and 6 by death. There have been
added to the Society during the year 67 new members. The present member-
ship of the Society consists of 2 honorary members, 12 associates, and 563
members, a total of 577. Eleven new members have been added to the
Sanitary Section during the year. The total membership of the Section is
149, of whom 134 are members of the Society and 15 have membership in the
Section only.
The record of deaths during the year is Charles W. Folsom, died May
19, 1904; Kilburn S. Sweet, died July 15, 1904; Reuben Shirreffs, died
August 31, 1904; James T. Boyd, died November 3, 1904; Macy S. Pope,
died December 10, 1904; Charles M. Wilkes, died January 7, 1905.
Ten regular meetings of the Society have been held during the year, and
the Twenty-third Annual Dinner was given at the Hotel Vendome on Feb-
ruary 28, 1905. The average attendance at the regular meetings was 84;
the largest being about 200, and the smallest 19. The number at the annual
dinner was 126.
At the regular meetings the following papers have been read :
March 16, 1904. — President Ira N. Hollis, address on "Some Data on
Marine Engines."
April 20, 1904. — Mr. W. L. R. Emmet, "The Steam Turbine in Modern
Engineering." (Illustrated.)
May 18, 1904. — Mr. Stephen Child, "Landscape Architecture." (Illus-
trated.)
September 21, 1904. — Mr. Sanford E. Thompson, "The Strength of Con-
crete." (Illustrated.)
October 19, 1904. — Mr. F. W. Hodgdon, "Boat Harbors on the South
Coast of Massachusetts." (Illustrated.)
Mr. John E. Cheney, "Construction of the New Cambridge Bridge."
(Illustrated.)
November 16, 1904. — Memoir of Charles W. Folsom.
Mr. Desmond FitzGerald, lecture on "The Philippines." (Illustrated.)
December 21, 1904. — Mr. Nelson Spofford, "Massachusetts' Northern
Boundary."
Prof. L. J. Johnson, "Some Data on the Weight of a Crowd of People."
(Illustrated.)
Memoir of Kilburn S. Sweet.
January 25, 1905. — Mr. Irving E. Moultrop, "The Steam-turbo Generator
Station of the Edison Electric Illuminating Co." (Illustrated.)
Memoirs of James T. Boyd, Reuben Shirreffs and Macy S. Pope.
PROCEEDINGS. 43
February 15, 1905. — Mr. D. A. Harrington, "Underground and Sub-
marine Conduits for Electric Wires." ' (Illustrated.)
Six informal meetings have been held in the Society's library during the
past year. The subjects discussed at these meetings have been as follows:
May 4, 1904. — Mr. J. Emery Harriman, Jr., "Mechanical Flight."
November 30, 1904. — Mr. William Parker, "Abolition of Grade Crossings
in East Boston."
December 7, 1904. — Mr. J. Parker Snow, "Recent Work in Unifying
Specifications for Engineering Materials."
January 11, 1905. — Messrs. F. O. Whitney, F. M. Miner and Henry
Manley, "The Adjustment of Curb Grades and Paved Surfaces at Street
Intersections."
January 18, 1905. — Mr. J. H. Kimball, "The Extension of Trunk Sewer
in Newton Highlands under the Cochituate and Sudbury Aqueducts."
February 8, 1905. — Mr. Charles F. Morse, "Concrete Wall on Lynn
Shore Reservation."
It will be remembered that about a year ago a Committee of this Society
made recommendations with regard to the amendment of the Boston build-
ing laws, which recommendations were approved by vote of the Society.
They have subsequently been adopted by the Commissioners, to whom the
subject was referred, and have been reported by those Commissioners to the
Massachusetts Legislature, before whom the matter is now pending.
Our Sanitary Section has continued its vigorous life throughout the
year. It has a large membership, and has held more meetings than re-
quired by its by-laws, and they have been well attended. Its papers and dis-
cussions have been valuable and constitute a large addition to the contents
of the Journal of the Association. With regard to the effect upon our
finances, the initiation fees of fifteen members admitted to the Sanitary Sec-
tion, and not otherwise connected with the Society, have added $75 to our
assets. On the other hand, some expense has been incurred for holding its
meetings. Hiring a place of meeting is an expense to be expected. When
the meetings are held in connection with a dinner paid for by the members
of the Section, it is thought reasonable that an allowance from the Society's
treasury should be made representing what it would have cost merely to hire
a hall. Hitherto, however, it has happened that nothing has been paid for
hiring a place of meeting for the Sanitary Section. Its principal cost thus
far has been $103.50 for stenographic reporting. It is believed that more
economical arrangements can be made in the future, but, so far as occasion
may require, the reporting of technical information is believed by this Board
to be one of the most useful purposes to which the money of the Society can
be applied.
With regard to the financial condition of the Society, there has been a
gratifying increase in the permanent fund from the initiation fees of new mem-
bers, amounting in all to $725. On the other hand, our current funds have
diminished, the receipts during the past year having been less than the ex-
pense by about $154. This deficit would have been much larger except for
the income received from advertisements in the Journal. Omitting this
income, there has been for the past four years a reduction in each year of the
cash balance of income over receipts. During the year, about $300 has been
received from advertisements. Under the present rules, 70 per cent, of the
amount received for advertisements obtained by our Society comes into the
44 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Society's treasury. It seems as if a large increase of advertising might be
obtained by an effort among our members, which would be an important
factor in the solution of our financial questions. Among the things that
have contributed to this undesirable state of affairs has been an increase
in the cost of the Journal, amounting to $412 over that of the preceding
year; this larger expense is liable to continue. Another thing has been the
alteration in our by-laws, by which the new members coming in have not
paid dues for the remainder of the fiscal year after their election. The
effect of this upon the comparison between successive years is temporary,
being an incident of starting the new regime. The new members will in
the coming year be liable, of course, for regular dues. It may be seen, how-
ever, even from the accounts of a year ago that the Society's business is being
conducted with such a narrow margin as to its current funds that unless we
make a change of policy we cannot venture upon any undertaking requiring
extra expenditure of current funds.
The lease of the rooms now occupied by the Society expires on the 1st
of June next, and it will be necessary for the Society to take some action
before that time upon the question of renewing it. The consideration of it
may naturally be connected with the report of the Committee on Quarters,
which has been studying it during the past year.
Fifty dollars was appropriated for the purchase of new books for the
library during the year, but only about $30 has been expended. The Board
recommends that for the coming year an appropriation of $75 be made for
that purpose. The reason for the increase is that it is expected that an ex-
penditure of about $30 will be required to purchase and bind the Proceedings
of the International Engineering Congress, held last October at St. Louis.
The number of badges issued to members of the Society has now reached
169.
As authorized by a vote of the Society, cards of introduction to the
rooms of Engineering Societies in a number of different cities have been pre-
pared. They have been issued by the Secretary to such members as have
applied for them, and to new members as they have joined the Society, and
they are to be sent to the remaining members of the Society very shortly.
Last spring it was left to the Board of Government to make such ar-
rangements as might prove desirable for extending hospitality to foreign
engineers, of whom a great many were expected to visit this country in
connection with the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Though occasion did
not arise for the entertainment by our members of any large number of per-
sons in a body, there were numerous visitors from abroad, who came singly
or in small parties during the summer and fall, and many courtesies were
extended to them by members of this Society, for which gratifying expres-
sions of appreciation were made by the visitors.
An important event in the business of the Association of Engineering
Societies is the resignation of Mr. John C. Trautwine, Jr., who has served
as the Secretary of the Board of Managers of the Association for eleven
years. The Boston Society of Civil Engineers has always been deeply inter-
ested in the Association, and its Board of Government wishes to put upon
record an expression of its appreciation of the great value of his energetic
and skillful service.
For the Board of Government,
Fred. Brooks. President.
PROCEEDINGS. 45
Abstract of the Treasurer's and the Secretary's Reports for the Year
i 904- 1 905.
current fund.
Receipts:
Dues for 1904-1905 $3,463.50
Dues for 1905-1906 28.00
Sales of Journals 5.25
Rent of rooms 1. 000.00
Advertisements in the Journal 457-52
Interest on deposits 1443
Repayment from Permanent Fund 169.43
Balance on hand, March 17, 1904 441-39
$5,579-52
Expenditures:
Rent $1,650.00
Association of Engineering Societies 1,449.00
Printing and postage 644.57
Salaries of Secretary, Librarian and Custodian 550.00
Commission on advertisements I54-90
Reporting meetings 141.00
Incidentals 135-53
Stereopticon 100.00
Library maintenance 90.82
Periodicals 62.55
Binding 57-6o
Lighting 31.69
Books 30.53
Furniture and repairs 25.00
5,123.19
Balance on hand, March 15, 1905 $456.33
Amount to credit of Current Fund, March 17, 1904 610.82
Excess of expenditures over receipts $154.49
PERMANENT FUND.
Receipts:
Merchants' Co-operative Bank $1,218.69
Sixty-seven entrance fees, Society 670.00
Eleven entrance fees, Sanitary Section 55-00
Interest on deposits, savings banks 251.19
Subscription to Building Fund 100.00
Interest on bond 36.00
$2,330.88
46 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Expenditures:
Dues on shares Merchants' Co-operative Bank $300.00
Dues on shares Volunteer Co-operative Bank 300.00
Dues on shares Workingmen's Co-operative Bank 300.00
Paid Merchants' Co-operative Bank for old shares trans-
ferred 260.25
Repaid Current Fund 169.43
Deposited in Provident Institution for Savings 46.11
Deposited in Boston Five-cents Savings Bank 43-OI
Deposited in Eliot Five-cents Savings Bank 41.25
Deposited in Warren Institution for Savings 40.73
Deposited in Institution for Savings in Roxbury 40.24
Deposited in Franklin Savings Bank 39-85
1,580.87
Balance on hand, March 15, 1905 $750.01
PROPERTY BELONGING TO THE PERMANENT FUND, MARCH 15, I905.
Twenty-five shares Volunteer Co-operative Bank $3,726.00
Twenty-five shares Workingmen's Co-operative Bank 3,372.89
Twenty-five shares Merchants' Co-operative Bank 1, 795-79
Deposit in Provident Institution for Savings 1,352.94
Deposit in Boston Five-cents Savings Bank 1,261.84
Deposit in Eliot Five-cents Savings Bank 1,210.17
Deposit in Warren Institution for Savings 1,194.68
Deposit in Institution for Savings in Roxbury 1,180.51
Deposit in Franklin Savings Bank 1,168.92
One Republican Valley R. R. Bond, No. 2 (par value) 600.00
Cash on deposit in Old Colony Trust Company 750.01
$i7,6i3-7S
Amount as per last annual report 16,080.54
Increase during the year $1,533.21
TOTAL PROPERTY OF THE SOCIETY IN THE POSSESSION OF THE TREASURER.
Permanent Fund $17,613.75
Current Fund 456.33
Total $18,070.08
Amount as per last annual report 16,691.36
Total increase during the year $1,378.72
PROCEEDINGS. 47
Report of Committee on Excursions.
Boston, March 15, 1905.
To the Members of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers:
The Committee on Excursions submits herewith its annual report.
Eleven excursions have been made during the year, as follows :
April 20, 1904. — Edison Electric Illuminating Company's L Street Sta-
tion. Attendance, 27.
May 18, 1904. — South Terminal Station. Attendance, 16.
June 15, 1904. — Power plant, Jordan-Marsh Company, and press rooms
of Boston American. Attendance, 11.
July 20, 1904. — Road across Lynn Marsh, under construction by the
Massachusetts Highway Commission. Attendance, 33.
September 29, 1904. — Sewerage Works at Nut Island and the Calf
Pasture Sewage Pumping Station. Attendance, 39.
October 19, 1904. — New Cambridge Bridge. Attendance, 55.
November 17, 1904. — United Shoe Machinery Company's plant at
Beverly, Mass. Attendance, 32.
December 14, 1904. — Abolition of grade crossings of the Boston &
Albany R. R. at East Boston. Attendance, 25.
January 12, 1905. — South Boston Station, Edison Electric Illuminating
Company. On account of the unusually severe storm, there was no attend-
ance.
February 15, 1905. — General Electric Co.'s Works at Lynn.
March 15, 1905. — Chickering & Sons' Piano Factory. Attendance, 17.
Total attendance, 332 ; average attendance, 30.
Eighteen pages of the Bulletin of Engineering Work have been published
during the year. The committee wishes to thank those who have aided in
this work.
There is a cash balance of $34.35 m tne hands of the Treasurer.
Respectfully submitted,
Franklin M. Miner, Chairman,
Edward P. Adams, Sec'y and Treas.,
Edward F. Miller.,
Walter H. Norris,
Frank E. Winsor,
Committee on Excursions.
Report of the Committee on the Library.
Boston, March 15, 1905.
To the Members of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers:
The Committee on the Library begs leave to make the following re-
port for 1904- 1905 :
The Committee has suffered a great loss in the death of Mr. Kilburn S.
15
48 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Sweet, who, for several years before his death, devoted a great deal of
time and attention to the details of the library. The improvement in the
arrangement of the government reports in the library is due almost entirely
to his efforts.
There have been received and accessioned since the last annual meeting.
190 bound volumes, which is slightly more than one-half as many as were
received during the preceding year. If as many books had been received
during the past year as were received in the year 1903-1904, it would have
been impossible to find room enough for them upon the shelves of the library.
As indicated in the previous report of the Library Committee, the ques-
tion of shelf room for books is a very serious one. At present most of the
shelves contain two rows of books, and there are on hand several volumes
stored away in cupboards which should be placed upon the shelves, but for
which there is not room. When the next lot of books are received from the
binder, it will be necessary to provide more shelf room.
The Committee wishes to recommend that the practice of purchasing
standard engineering books for the library be continued for the coming year.
Respectfully submitted,
Frank P. McKibben,
J. N. Ferguson,
R. S. Hale,
Committee on the Library.
Montana Society of Engineers.
The regular meeting of the Society was held in the Society room Satur-
day, March 11, at the usual hour, Vice-President B. H. Dunshee presiding,
a quorum being present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read
and approved. The applications of Messrs. Moran and Wisner for mem-
bership were read by the Secretary, approved, and by motion the necessary
ballots were ordered sent out. Messrs. Humphry, Keller, Leimer and
McLeod were elected to membership by a unanimous vote. The Trustees
reported that they had examined the books of the Secretary and Treasurer
and found them correct, and on motion the report was approved. The matter
of withdrawal from the Associated Societies, made a special order for this
meeting, was called up, and indefinitely postponed without a dissenting vote.
The Secretary was instructed to correspond with the Secretary of the
American Society of Civil Engineers and inquire if this Society can make
arrangements to have the publication of that Society distributed among the
members of the Montana Society of Engineers and on what terms.
A. H. Weithey and George W. Wilson read papers on the theme
"United States Mining Laws," which has been before the Society for con-
sideration for some time. Quite a lengthy discussion followed, after which
the Society adjourned.
Clinton H. Moore, Secretary.
PROCEEDINGS. 49
Engineers' Club of St. Eon is.
595TH Meeting, St. Louis, Mo., March 15, 1905. — Held at the Club
Rooms, 3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, March 15, 1905, Vice-
President Layman presiding. There were present thirty-nine members and
nine guests.
The minutes of the 594th meeting were read and approved, and the
minutes of the 386th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
An application for membership in the Club was read from Oddgeir
Stephensen.
Mr. Chas. Adams Homer was electe-d a member of the Club.
A very interesting paper was presented by Mr. Lionel Viterbo upon
"Fundamental Principles of Reinforced Concrete." The paper was dis-
cussed at length by Messrs. A. L. Johnson, Henby, Ockerson, Russell,
Humphrey and Viterbo.
The Secretary announced as the paper for the next meeting "The Levee
and Drainage Problem of the American Bottoms," by Mr. E. G. Helm.
Adjourned.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
A
SSOCIATION
OF
Engineering Societies.
Vol. XXXIV. APRIL, 1905. No. 4.
PROCEEDINGS.
Toledo Society of Engineers.
Toledo, Ohio, March 7, 1905. — In November, 1903, Messrs.
G. V. Rhines, C. A. Raymond and S. D. Bullock discussed the question
of an Engineers' Society in Toledo. After consulting Mr. H. E. Riggs sev-
eral preliminary meetings were held, resulting in an organization, and the
adoption of a constitution and by-laws on January 8, 1904, at which
time officers were elected for the year by a membership of forty-seven.
During the year twenty-four additional members were received. One
death has occurred, and one resignation, leaving the membership of
sixty-nine on January 1, 1905. During the year papers were read, dis-
cussed, and often illustrated with maps, photos and diagrams on the
following subjects :
" Panama Canal," " Lake Erie and Ohio River Ship Canal," " Safe
Construction of Theaters," " Toledo Railway and Terminal Belt,"
" Modern Methods of Paving Streets," " Disposal of Municipal Refuse,"
" Lighting of Mill Buildings," " Crane Service in Mill Buildings," " Rein-
forced Concrete," " Reinforced Concrete Warehouse," "The Eads Bridge,"
" Repairs and Reinforcing." A lecture was given in the Grand Thea-
ter upon the Isthmian Canal by Mr. W. V. Alford of Columbus, illus-
trated by many excellent lantern slides. A trip to the Toledo Blast
Furnace completes the schedule of the work done by the Society during
1904.
Two of the papers referred to, " Safe Construction of Theaters,"
by Mr. E. O. Fallis, and " Disposal of Municipal Refuse," by Mr. F. K.
Rhines, were published in the Journal of the Association of Engineer-
ing Societies.
John C. Oliphant, Secretary.
Engineers' Club of St. Louis.
594TH Meeting, St. Louis, 'March i, 1905. — Held at the Club
rooms, 3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, March 1, 1905, Presi-
dent Flad presiding. There were present forty-one members and four
guests.
The minutes of the 593d meeting were read and approved, and the
minutes of the 385th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
52 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Application for membership in the Club was read from Charles
Adams Homer.
The following were elected to membership in the Club: George
Waters Arnott, William Ralph Busch, William H. Elliot, Elmer C. Peper.
A paper of unusual interest by Mr. Carl Gayler on " Our Grade-
Crossing Problems " drew out a large attendance of the Club members,
and provoked lively discussion by Messrs. Cunningham, Rohwer, Valliant,
Phillips, Zeller, Pfeifer, McCulloch, Flad, Greensfelder, Bryan and Gayler.
Adjourned.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
596TH Meeting, St. Louis, April 5, 1905. — Held at the Club rooms,
3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, April 5, 1905, President Flad
presiding. Twenty-eight members and seven guests were present.
The minutes of 595th meeting were read and approved. The minutes
of the 387th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
Applications for membership were read from Holger Stuckmann,
John Taylor, Douglas Turner.
Mr. Brenneke, chairman of the Entertainment Committee, announced
an excursion for the Club members for Saturday, April 15, to the plant
of the Atlas Cement Company, near Hannibal, Mo.
The plan is to leave St. Louis about 8 a.m., returning about 7 p.m.
Luncheon will be served at the works. There will be a Pullman on the
train with buffet, etc. The total expense will be $1.00 per member.
Mr. Greensfelder moved that the Executive Committee be instructed
to make application for membership in the Million Club of St. Louis.
The motion was seconded. After a brief discussion, Mr. Russell moved
that the matter be laid over until the next meeting. Seconded by Mr.
Bryan. The motion was carried. It was moved by Mr. Brenneke that
the Executive Committee investigate this matter and report at the next
meeting. The motion was carried.
The Secretary read a letter from Mr. W. R. Bascome stating that he
had sent to the Club specifications of the Williamsburg Bridge in New
York City. The Secretary stated that he had acknowledged the receipt
of the same, expressing the thanks of the Club for the donation.
Mr. Helm's interesting paper upon " The Levee and Drainage Prob-
lem of the American Bottoms " was ably presented. After discussion of
the paper by Messrs. Pitzman, Russell, Moon, Bryan and Helm, the meet-
ing adjourned.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
597TH Meeting, St. Louis, April 19, 1905. — Held at the Club
rooms, 3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, April 19, 1905, President
Flad presiding. Thirty-eight members and twenty-two guests were
present.
The minutes of the 596th meeting were read and approved. The min-
utes of the 388th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
The following letter from the Hunkins- Willis Lime and Cement
Company was read:
April 18, 1905.
Mr. R. H. Fernald, Secretary Engineers' Club of St. Louis,
3817 Olive Street, City:
Dear Sir, — We acknowledge receipt of your favor of the 16th
enclosing list of members of the Engineers' Club and guests who visited
PROCEEDINGS. 53
the plant of the Atlas Portland Cement Company on Saturday last. It is
very gratifying to us to learn that the trip was a pleasant one to your
members and it is our earnest hope the information derived will be of
benefit. If you feel that the time spent at the plant was not sufficient
to obtain all that you desired, we will be glad to arrange a similar trip
at a later date.
Yours truly,
Hunrins-Willis Lime and Cement Company,
By Gordon Willis, Vice-President.
Upon motion of Mr. Robert Moore a hearty vote of thanks was
extended the Hunkins-Willis Lime and Cement Company, and to the
Entertainment Committee for securing and arranging the trip. The
Secretary was instructed to send letters in accordance with .this action.
The following were elected members of the Club : Holger Stuckmann,
John Taylor, Douglas Turner.
The Executive Committee reported in favor of having the Club join
the Million Club. After discussion by Messrs. Robert Moore, Greens-
f elder, Thacher and Flad, Mr. Philip Moore moved that the question be
indefinitely postponed. Carried.
A very profitable evening was then spent in listening to the brief
talks upon " Coal Investigations at St. Louis." The meeting took the
form of an informal Smoke Talk. The subject was outlined as follows:
" Importance to Engineers of St. Louis," Messrs. Arthur Thacher,
Robert Moore, Wm. H. Bryan; " General Plan of Fuel Investigations by
the United States Geological Survey," Mr. J. A. Holmes; " Steaming
Tests," Mr. W. T. Ray; " Producer-Gas Tests and Gas Engines," Mr.
R. H. Fernald; " The Coals to be Tested — Sampling and other Prob-
lems," Messrs. E. W. Parker, J. S. Burrows; " Improvement in Quality
of Coals by Washing," Mr. J. D. Wick; ' Plans for Chemical Work,"
Mr. E. E. Sommermeier.
Much enthusiasm in the work of the United States Geological Survey
Coal Testing Plant was awakened by the meeting.
Adjourned.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland.
25TH Anniversary Banquet, held March 13, 1905. — One hun-
dred and forty members of the Club and their friends assembled at the
Colonial Hotel at eight o'clock Monday evening, March 13, to celebrate
the Club's twenty-fifth birthday. After a pleasant half hour spent in
renewing old acquaintances and meeting new ones, attention was given
to a very satisfying exhibition of the culinary capacity of the hotel's
chef. This having been disposed of, President Alex. E. Brown, as toast
master, assumed the direction of affairs.
First on the program was the rendering of " Clouds " and " Sun-
shine," both by Schilling, by the Ionic Quartet.
Mr. Trautwine, being unable to be present, sent a very interesting
letter in response to the toast, " Our Faithful Guardian of the Engineers'
Trust, whose ever-full pocketbook has given unlimited aid to the needy
engineer," in which he gave a brief outline of the founding of the Asso-
54 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
ciation of Engineering Societies and painted a glowing picture of its future
as a publication medium for the engineering societies of the country.
Letters of regret from General Paine and Gen. John M. Wilson,
and telegrams from Professor Michelson and Gen. J. A. Smith were also
read.
Mayor Tom L. Johnson responded to the toast, " Our Mayor, Retired
Engineer and Manufacturer, always interested in engineers and their
work, has never forfeited his title to be one of us," in the course of which
he first gave to the world his scheme for rapid transportation by means
of an electric " slide " with which he proposes to reduce the time from
New York to Chicago to two hours.
Mr. W. R. Warner, sixth president of the Club, responded to the senti-
ment, " Our Manufacturer of Long-Distance Glasses," with which he
determined the orbit and predicted the advent of a great sea-level canal
in " Other Worlds than Ours."
Mr. Jos. Leon Gobeille, eighth president, then told some very witty
reminiscences of the production of " the " book and also some other
things in responding to the toast " Our Bookmaker, whose pattern shows
the mark of wisdom."
Mr. Walter P. Rice, ninth president, responded to " Our Present
Historian and Original Architect, who first drew the plans of our Club
to the Metric Scale," supplementing his work in the book by a more
detailed account of the efforts of the original three.
" Rare Bits of History," an historical poem by an unknown historian,
was read with great effect, at this point, by Professor Benjamin.
Bits of Unwritten History.
In eighteen hundred eighty,
On the thirteenth day of March,
Was the beginning of things weighty,
Which this night we celebrate.
But it isn't common knowledge,
That is, not to every one,
How this smart Association
In the beginning was begun.
In the earlier days of eighty
Than the one we celebrate,
Three wise young men of promise
Began to meditate.
Each had his own convictions,
And had followed them for years,
One was a good surveyor,
And two, good engineers.
Individual opinions
Were as solid as a rock,
Still, it might be best to bunch them,
And take account of stock.
PROCEEDINGS. 55
One was a land surveyor, '
First name begins with C —
He must never be mistaken
For the older " Moses C."
Another of this trio,
Though a prophet in his way,
Should never be confounded
With the ancient Hosea.
There was one more in this trio,
You'll recall his name perhaps,
If you've ever been invited
To a dinner with the Japs.
When they once got down to business,
They were sure it would be found
That this lovely combination
Covered nearly all the ground.
Where was there in all creation
Found a problem so profound
That stirveyors cannot measure, .
And no engineer can sound ?
They were anti-anti-metric,
That is, metric (in their mind),
But whene'er they came to measure,
Each one used the other kind.
When at last they came together,
They soon found, to their amaze,
That each man had been invited
To join the anti-metric craze.
But each had said, " Not any;
We are not built that way ;
The meter is our motto
And we're ready for the fray."
Being burdened with spare moments,
They looked about a bit,
For some chip upon the shoulder,
On which to make a hit.
They found some anti-metrics,
Who had organized a class
To study the Great Pyramid ;
This the trio could not pass.
Said this anti-metric business
Should be sat on good and hard:
" We're the very ones to do it,
And can do it by the card."
56 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
When they'd weighed their ammunition,
And had counted up their men,
They found they lacked just seven
Of the metric number ten.
It was then they felt quite lonely,
For they said " 'Twould never do,
To attack these anti-metrics
With so very small a crew."
In the highways and the byways,
They besought for seven more,
Who would swear by the great meter —
Never mind what else they swore.
Then with ready rhyme or reason,
Specious arguments they bring,
" If you'll just adopt our measure
You can meter everything."
" You can meet her in the garden,
You can meet her out at tea,
It will be a Water Meter
When you meet her by the sea."
" You can meet her once, or often,
You can meet her where you will,
But 'twill be a millimeter,
When you meet her by the mill."
" It is not a centimeter,
Nor the best of sentiment,
If each time you're asked to treat her,
You refuse to spend a cent."
" With its magic you can measure,
Liquids — solids — gases — ground,
But apply it to your lightning,
And you'll hear the wheels go round."
Thus with logic quite conclusive,
They beguiled these innocents ;
Thus the seven they were after
Yielded to their blandishments.
But their field began to broaden,
As their numbers came and went,
Thus the meter seemed to shorten,
Or was less belligerent.
Then organized their forces
On a somewhat broader plane ;
With their future all before them,
Excepting as to name.
PROCEEDINGS. 57
For they said, " It is not certain,
Just what we want to be;
We've so multiplied our numbers,
By the simple rule of three.
" It was our first impression
That we were called and sent
To oppose these anti-metrics,
As our first and sole intent.
" We thought we were born soldiers,
Three full-fledged brigadiers,
But we have about concluded
We are better engineers."
It was then they called a meeting,
On this vastly broader plan ;
March the thirteenth, eighteen eighty,
Marks the date this Club began.
It was this initial meeting
Gave this goodly Club its name;
Gave it officers and standing,
Blazed the trail by which it came.
This was how the matter started,
This is how the matter grew ;
How an energetic trio
Builded better than they knew.
Praise be to these gentle heroes,
Praises go where they belong;
Praises yield them, while you're waiting,
For this finis to my song.
The quartet rendered an original song entitled " Memories,"
written especially for this occasion, to the air of " Annie Laurie."
Memories.
(Air, " Annie 'r Laurie.")
We like to talk of old times,
Of comrades past and gone;
To us they seem the best times
That e'er the sun shone on.
Chorus.
And spite of wind and weather,
As heart to heart draws night,
We'll merrily sup together
And talk of days gone by.
58 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES
So let us talk of Holloway,
Of Latimer and Paul,
With now a thought for others
Too near by name to call. — Chorus.
But though our comrades left us
And passed beyond our ken,
Their works abide forever,
The works of faithful men. — Chorus.
A score and five of years gone,
And now the present pleads :
" God grant the coming cycle
May show like men and deeds." — Chorus.
Mr. Ambrose Swasey, eleventh president, told us something of his
travels in responding to " Our Globe-trotter and Explorer of our Insular
Possessions — the Man of Granite, Engineer and Accomplishment."
Dr. Chas. S. Howe, thirteenth president, brought news of inter-
stellar space as a response to the toast " Our Science President, who often
returns loaded down with rare game, unknown to the common herd, from
his favorite hunting grounds, the sunny hills and cool shadowed valleys
of the moon."
Ionic Quartet, Nocturne, Protheroe.
Prof. Chas. H. Benjamin, eighteenth president, responded to " Our
Manufacturer of Mechanical Engineers, — the Enemy of Smoke and
Buster of Fly-Wheels," but didn't tell how he abolished smoke, presum-
ably because the lateness of the hour, i a.m., precluded extended
remarks.
March 14, 1905. — The annual meeting was held in the rooms of
the Club, and was called to order by the Secretary, Mr. W. O. Henderer,
being then elected temporary chairman.
Messrs. Hoffman and Horner, tellers, reported the following officers
elected for the ensuing year:
President — Bernard L. Green, C.E.
Vice-President — Dayton C. Miller, A.M., D.Sc.
Secretary — Joseph C. Beardsley.
Treasurer — Arthur G. McKee, M.E.
Librarian — Elmer B. Wight.
Directors — Col. Dan C. Kingman, U. S. A., Charles H. Wright.
Messrs. T. M. Brown and J. E. A. Moore, tellers, reported the elec-
tion of the following to membership in the Club:
As Active Members: Heinrich J. C. Freyn, Harold Arthur Gilbert,
Frank E. Hulett, F. J. Littell, Charles H. Little, Franklin Moeller, Harry
Elihu Scott, Warren H. Thompson.
As Associate Member: George N. Pifer.
As Corresponding Member: Ralph Switzer Moore.
The following applications for membership, approved by the Execu-
tive Board, were read: George F. Burrows, Robert H. Clifford, Frederick
A. Coleman, James B. Green, Robert P. Greenleaf, David Gutman,
J. Frank Morse, George A. Peabody, Eugene C. Peck, Alexius R. Pribil,
PROCEEDINGS. 59
Robert E. Sheal and Frederick H. Sibley; and for transfer from the
Boston Society of Henry W. Fenno, all for active membership.
For associate membership, Robert C. Dodd.
Annual reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian and Program
Committee were read and ordered received and filed.
Report of the Secretary, Year Ending February 28, 1905.
Financial.
permanent fund.
Balance, March 1, 1904 $1,627.38
Fees $160.00
Interest 66.3 1
226.31
$1,853.69
Transferred to General Fund 565.00
Balance, February 28, 1905 $1,288.69
LIBRARY FUND.
Balance, March 1, 1904 $78.82
Disbursements $68.62
Transferred to General Fund (error 1903) . . 10.20
$78.82
GENERAL FUND. RECEIPTS.
Balance, March 1, 1904 $58.60
Dues, Active $1,550.00
Associate 96.00
Corresponding 117.50
Delinquent 158.00
1905 (active) 15.00
Total dues $1 ,936.50
Advertising 51-00
Contributions, account entertainment .... 53-°°
Contributions, account new quarters .... 109.00
Library Fund (error in 1903) 10.20
Permanent Fund, transfer 565.00
2,724.70
$2,783.3°
DISBURSEMENTS.
Printing $120.50
Stationery and postage 193.68
Entertainment 186.25
Associated Tech. Clubs 792.00
Assoc. Engineering Soc. Journal 528.05
Secretary 200.00
New quarters (subscription) 109.00
Taxes 29.55
Furniture 23.75
Collection, delinquent dues 20.10
60 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
Library $11.68
Incidentals 1450
1903 Bills — Printing, $5.75; Assoc. Tech.
Clubs, $198; Assoc. Journal, $216.40;
Secretary, $100; Incidental, $11 53!-i5
$2,760.21
Balance, February 28, 1905 $23.09
SUMMARY.
March 1, 1904, total balance $1,764.80
Total receipts 2,375.81
$4,140.61
Total disbursements 2,828.83
Total balance, February 28, 1905 $1,311.78
BILLS RECEIVABLE.
From members (dues) $230.00
Advertising 11.00
Subscriptions -' 4.00
$245.00
Jos. C. Beardsley, Secretary.
Report of the Treasurer.
Cleveland, Ohio, March 6, 1905.
To the Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland, Ohio:
Gentlemen, — The following is my report of moneys handled for the
Club during the year ending February 28, 1905:
Balance on hand, February 29, 1904, as per report of former Treasurer,
Permanent Fund $1,627.38
General Fund 5S.60
Library Fund 78.82
$1,764.80
Received by former Treasurer, between
February 29, 1904, and March 15, 1904 479.20
$2,244.00
Disbursed by former Treasurer, between
February 29 and March 15, Gen. Fund
— Vouchers 288 to 295 inclusive .... $53I-T5
Disbursed Feb. and March Library Fund. . 10.70
54I.85
Balance $1,702.15
Received from former Treasurer, March 15, 1904,
Permanent Fund $1,627.38
General Fund 6.65
Library Fund 68. 1 2
$1,702.15
Received from Secretary up to February 28, 1905,
On account Permanent Fund 160.00
On account General Fund 2,136.50
On account New Quarters contribution 109.00
On account Interest Permanent Fund 66.31
Total $4,173.96
PROCEEDINGS. 61
Disbursed General Fund, vouchers 296 to
353 inclusive, including $109 for new
quarters $2,229.06
Disbursement Permanent Fund — trans-
ferred to General Fund 565.00
Disbursement Library Fund 68.12
$2,862.18
Balance $1,311.78
Balance on hand, February 28, 1905,
Permanent Fund $1,288.69
General Fund 23.09
Total $1,311.78
Respectfully submitted,
Robert Hoffman, Treasurer.
A partial report of the House Committee, Associated Technical Clubs,
was also read, in which the items for the current month were estimated,
the Committee year ending March 31.
The Secretary read a communication from Mr. C. H. Wright, pre-
senting a fine framed portrait of the retiring President, Mr. Alex. E.
Brown, to the Club. The portrait was received, and a vote of thanks
tendered the donor.
The question of having the President's address read at a later meeting
was discussed and was finally referred to Mr. Wright and Mr. Allen to
arrange for a date for its reading.
Adjourned.
Jos. C. Beardsley, Secretary.
Regular meeting, April 11, 1905.
Meeting called to order by the Vice-President at 8.20 p.m. Present,
ninety-five members and visitors.
Minutes of the last meeting read and approved.
The following applications for membership, approved by the Exec-
utive Board, were read: For active membership, Willard Beahan, Eugene
G. Deucher, Fred. W. Hanks, Harry F. Miter, and for associate member-
ship, Melvin V. Pattison.
The tellers, Messrs. Henderer and Hoffman, reported the election to
active membership of the following: George F. Burrows, Robert H.
Clifford, Frederick A. Coleman, James B. Green, Robert P. Greenleaf,
David Gutman, John Frank Morse, George A. Peabody, Eugene C. Peck,
Alexius R. Pribil, Robert E. Sheal, Frederick H. Sibley, and Henry W.
Fenno transferred from the Boston Society; and to associate member-
ship of Robert C. Dodd.
Messrs. Honsberg, Hoffman and Fox were announced as a Committee
on Introduction.
The following resolution, introduced by the Secretary, was adopted
without discussion: " Whereas one of the most serious problems of cities
and towns is the rapidly increasing contamination of the sources of water
supply: Resolved that a committee of this Club be appointed by the
President, to draft legislation to be introduced at the next session of the
62 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
legislature, providing for a competent investigation of the pollution of
lakes, streams and other sources of water supply."
The paper of the evening was a popular account of the Panama
Canal, by Mr. Warner, that was thoroughly enjoyed by all who had the
privilege of hearing it.
Adjourned.
Jos. C. Beardsley, Secretary.
Adjourned meeting, May 23, 1905.
Meeting called to order by the Vice-President, Dr. Miller, at 8.20
p.m. Present, about eighty members, ladies and other guests.
It being a ladies' night, the reading of minutes of the preceding
meeting was dispensed with.
The tellers, Messrs. Rote and W. B. Rawson, reported the election to
active membership of the following: Willard Beahan, Eugene G. Deucher,
Fred. W. Hanks and Harry F. Miter; and to associate membership,
Melvin V. Pattison.
The names of the following applicants for membership, approved by
the Executive Board, were read, the reading of the text of the applications
being dispensed with: H. Fay Allen, Frederick G. Bates, C. H. Burgess,
J. Milton Dyer, Pliny D. Hubbard, Geo. E. Merryweather, Clyde T.
Morris, R. B. Perrine, Ralph V. Scott, Geo. H. Tinker, Fred'k J. Trumper,
and for transfer from the Boston Society, Lester W. Tucker, all for active
membership, and for associate membership, Robert G. Clapp. The
paper of the evening, an illustrated description of " The Gold and
Diamond Fields of South Africa," was then read by Mr. J. S. Lane, late
of Webster, Camp & Lane, and more recently associated with Mr. John
Hays Hammond in South Africa.
Refreshments were served after the reading of the paper.
Adjourned.
Jos. C. Beardsley, Secretary.
Technical Society of the Pacific Coast.
Directors' Meeting, San Francisco, March 30, 1905. — Held at
the San Mateo residence of the President, Mr. George W. Dickie, who
had invited the gentlemen of the Board of Directors to take dinner with
him.
Present: Directors Manson (for George H. Wallis, deceased), C. B.
Wing (for Carl Uhlig), Hermann Barth, H. D. Connick, E. T. Schild,
and Otto Von Geldern.
The Secretary notified the members of the death of Director Geo. H.
Wallis, and the President appointed a committee consisting of Mr. Ru-
dolph J. Taussig and the Secretary to draw up suitable resolutions of
respect in memory of our late colleague and fellow-director.
In the matter of the coming spring meeting, the possibility of holding
this meeting in Portland during the Lewis and Clark Centennial was
fully discussed, and the Secretary was instructed to communicate with
the president of the Exposition, Mr. Henry W. Goode, to ascertain the
arrangements that might be made with the authorities for holding pro-
PROCEEDINGS. 63
tracted meetings at about the end of June in conjunction with similar
societies. A letter to Mr. Goode, dated April 3, 1905, and his reply
thereto, dated April 5, 1905, are hereto appended.
Mr. Manson referred to the Pacific Coast Railway Club as one of
the organizations likely to take part in an excursion to Portland, and
suggested that the Secretary communicate with the Club, suggesting
that a committee from the Pacific Coast Railway Club meet a similar
committee from the Technical Society for the purpose of considering a joint
action in the matter of an Engineering Congress. This was ordered and
the Secretary so instructed.
The meeting adjourned to be called again on Friday, April 14, 1905,
the members accepting an invitation from Mr. Schild to dine with him
on that occasion.
Otto von Geldern, Secretary.
Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Boston, Mass., April 5, 1905. — A special meeting of the Sanitary
Section of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers was held at the Copley
Square Hotel, Wednesday, April 5, 1905, at 7.30 o'clock p.m.; forty-nine
members and guests being present.
A paper was read by C. E. A. Winslow entitled, " A Winter Visit to
Some Sewage Plants in Ohio, Wisconsin and Illinois." The paper was
fully illustrated with lantern slides and was discussed by Messrs. X. H.
Goodnough, R. S. Weston, L. P. Kinnicutt, F. C. Coffin, G. A. Carpenter
and others.
In the afternoon about twenty-five members visited the Sanitary
Research Laboratory and Sewage Experiment Station of the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology.
William S. Johnson, Clerk.
Boston, Mass., April 12, 1905. — A special meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple,
at 7.45 o'clock p.m., eighty members being present.
In calling the meeting to order, President John W. Ellis expressed
his appreciation of the honor which had been conferred upon him in his
election to the presidenc)'' of the Society, and thanked the members most
sincerely for their consideration.
The Secretary stated that the meeting had been called in compli-
ance with a request of the Board of Government of the Society contained
in the following vote: " That the President call a special meeting of the
Society on April 12, 1905, to consider the recommendation of the Com-
mittee on Quarters and to act on the question of quarters."
Mr. George A. Kimball moved, and it was duly seconded, that it is
the sense of this meeting that the report of the majority of the Com-
mittee on Quarters be adopted, provided that satisfactory arrangements
can be made.
After a very full and earnest discussion of the majority and minority
64 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
reports of the Committee on Quarters submitted at the annual meeting,
on a vote being taken, the motion was lost, 24 in favor and 41 against.
On motion of Mr. F. P. Stearns it was then voted: " That the Board
of Government be authorized to execute a lease with the Tremont Temple
Baptist Church."
Adjourned.
S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
Boston, Mass., April 19, 1905. — A regular meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple,
at 7.45 o'clock p.m., President John W. Ellis in the chair; thirty-two
members and visitors present.
Record of the annual meeting and that of the special meeting of
April 12 were read and approved.
Messrs. Robert A. Shailer, Frank E. Shedd, Manuel H. Silvia and
Herbert W. Spooner were elected members of the Society.
The Secretary reported, for the Board of Government, the appoint-
ment of the following committees:
Committee on Excursions: E. P. Adams, W. H. Norris, L. L. Street,
H. R. Stearns and C. T. Fernald.
Committee on the Library: F. P. McKibben, F. I. Winslow, J. N.
Ferguson, R. S. Hale and H. K. Barrows.
Committee on Advertisements: E. W. Howe, A. S. Glover and F. V.
Fuller.
Members of the Board of Managers, Association of Engineering Socie-
ties, in addition to the Secretary, J. R. Freeman, Henry Manley, Dexter
Brackett, Dwight Porter and C. W. Sherman.
Mr. H. A. Carson, for the Committee appointed to prepare a memoir
of Charles M. Wilkes, submitted and read its report.
Mr. Harold K. Barrows read the paper of the evening entitled, " The
Hydrographic Work of the United States Geological Survey in New Eng-
land, and a Discussion of Methods used for Estimating Stream Flow."
The paper was fully illustrated by lantern slides.
Adjourned.
S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
Boston, Mass., May 17, 1905. — A regular meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple,
Boston, at 7.50 o'clock p.m., President John W. Ellis in the chair; seventy-
eight members and visitors present.
The record of the last meeting was read and approved.
Messrs. Edwin J. Beugler, John H. Gregory and Joseph F. Ross were
elected members of the Society.
The Secretary announced for the Board of Government that it had
appointed the following Committee on Quarters, Messrs. Desmond Fitz-
Gerald, George A. Kimball, E. W. Howe, Wm. S. Johnson and Freeman
C. Coffin.
The first paper of the evening was read by Mr. George G. Shedd,
entitled, " The Garvins Falls Dam and Water Power Plant."
The second paper was read by Mr. Edward B. Richardson, assistant
PROCEEDINGS. 65
engineer for Hollis French and Allen Hubbard, consulting engineers for
the Garvins Falls dam, describing the hydro-electrical features of the
dam.
Mr. James W. Rollins, Jr., followed, speaking particularly of the
construction of the dam from the contractor's point of view.
Both papers were fully illustrated by lantern slides.
After passing a vote of thanks to Mr. Richardson, who is not a
member of the Society, for the interesting paper contributed by him, the
Society adjourned.
S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
Montana Society of Engineers.
The regular meeting of the Society for April was held Saturday
evening, April 8, in the Society rooms at the usual hour. The meeting
was called to order by Vice-President Dunshee as soon as the Secretary re-
ported a quorum present. Minutes of the March meeting were read and
approved. Under suspension of the rules the applications for membership
in the Society of Messrs. Edward K. Triol and Henry C. Bacorn were read,
approved and ballots for the same ordered sent out. By a unanimous
vote Messrs. Clarence B. Wisner and Wm. J. Moran were elected to
membership. A letter was read from the Engineering Society of Seattle,
Wash., inviting the Montana Society of Engineers to take part in an
Engineering Congress at Portland, Ore., during the Lewis and Clark Fair.
The Secretary was instructed to write for particulars.
A communication was read calling attention to some missing Irri-
gation and Experiment Station papers from the Society Library, and the
members were invited to supply the same. The members present had
their attention called to a present to the Society of a magnificent picture
of the Boston & Montana Company's Smelter at Great Falls, secured
through the kind offices of Mr. C. W. Goodale, and on motion a vote of
thanks was tendered Mr. Goodale and the givers.
The Society then adjourned.
Clinton H. Moore, Secretary.
The monthly meeting of Society for May was held at the Society
rooms May 13, at the regular hour, with a large number of members
present. Vice-President Dunshee presided, President King being
unavoidably absent. After the reading and approval of the minutes of
the last meeting the applications for membership in the Society of Messrs.
Peter S. Mussigbrod, Alfred Francis Borguis and Frank Osborne Fernald
were presented, approved and ballots for the same were ordered circulated.
Mr. Edward K. Triol and Henry C. Bacorn were unanimously elected to
membership. The Secretary read the announcement of an Engineering
Congress to be held at Portland, Ore., June 29 and 30, and July 1, 1905,
under the auspices of the Lewis and Clark Exposition, by the Pacific North-
west Society of Engineers and the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast,
to which all engineers and technical men are invited. A circular will be
issued about June 1 containing list of papers and authors. The Secretary
of this Society was instructed to apply for a quantity of the latest circulars
66 ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING SOCIETIES.
and mail the same with the notices of the June meeting, if possible. The
Secretary read a paper by Mr. Jos. H. Harper, wherein the author more
clearly defines his position as regards the revision of the United States
mining laws. After some little discussion and the reading of an article on
the same subject in the April 27th issue of the Engineering and Mining
Journal by one of the members, the Society adjourned.
Clinton H. Moore, Secretary.
Association
OF
Engineering Societies.
Vol. XXXIV. MAY, 1905. No. 5.
PROCEEDINGS.
Engineers' Club of St. Louis.
598TH Meeting, St. Louis, May 3, 1905. — Held at the Club rooms,
3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, May 3, 1905. In the absence of
President Flad and Vice-President Layman, Mr. Greensf elder was elected
chairman for the evening. Nineteen members and nine guests were
present.
The minutes of the 597th meeting were read and approved. The
minutes of the 389th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
Mr. Oddgeir Stephensen was elected a member of the Club.
The illustrated talk by Prof. Holmes Smith of Washington University
upon " Refinements of Greek Architecture " was very much enjoyed.
After discussion by Messrs. Zeller, Greensfelder and Smith, a hearty vote
of thanks was extended Professor Smith for his kindness in presenting
his paper before the Club.
Adjourned. R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
599TH Meeting, St. Louis, May 17, 1905. — Held at the Club
rooms, 3817 Olive Street, Wednesday evening, May 17, 1905, Presi-
dent Flad presiding. Twenty-seven members and three guests were
present.
The minutes of the 598th meeting were read and approved. The
minutes of the 390th meeting of the Executive Committee were read.
The Secretary read a letter from Mr. Warder, secretary of the Western
Society of Engineers of Chicago, relating to a proposed visit of the Engi-
neers' Club of St. Louis to Chicago some time in the near future. The
letter was referred to the Entertainment Committee for consideration.
The paper of the evening, by Prof. C. M.Woodward of Washington
University, upon " Forces due to Eccentric Weights attached to Rolling
Wheels," was presented, and after discussion by Messrs. Perkins, Bryan,
Langsdorf, Russel, Bausch, Flad and Hanna, the meeting adjoxirned.
R. H. Fernald, Secretary.
AsSOCIATIO
N
OF
Engineering Societies.
Vol. XXXIV. JUNE, 1905. No. 6.
PROCEEDINGS.
Boston Society of Civil Engineers.
Boston, Mass., June 21, 1905. — A regular meeting of the Boston
Society of Civil Engineers was held at Chipman Hall, Tremont Temple,
Boston, at 8 o'clock p.m., thirty members and visitors present. In the
absence of the President and Vice-Presidents, Mr. Alexis H. French was
chosen chairman of the meeting.
The record of the last meeting was read and approved.
Messrs. Joseph H. Fitch, Joseph H. Libbey, Luis Matamoras and
Alexander P. Milnes were elected members of the Society.
Mr. Charles M. Spofford read a paper upon " The Making of Struct-
ural Steel," which was illustrated with lantern slides.
The Secretary read a short paper prepared by Prof . John E. Hill, of
Providence, describing the Engineering Building recently erected at Brown
University. This paper was also illustrated with lantern slides.
Adjourned.
S. E. Tinkham, Secretary.
Sanitary Section.
Boston, June 24, 1905. — The regular meeting of the Sanitary
Section was held at Point Shirley, Saturday afternoon, June 24, 1905,
fifty-eight members and guests being present.
The members were taken to Point Shirley by the Street Department
boat Cormorant, where a shore dinner was served at the Point Shirley
Club. After the dinner a brief business meeting was held, and the mem-
bers then took the boat for a trip around Boston harbor. Stops were
made at the Deer Island sewage pumping station, the outlet of the North
Metropolitan sewage system, the Nut Island screen house, the outlets
of the high level sewer, the Moon Island sewage reservoirs and the
outlet of the Boston main drainage works.
At the business meeting J. W. Bartol, M.D., Charles Harrington,
M.D., and George A. Sanborn were elected members of the Section.
The thanks of the Society were voted to the Superintendent of Streets
of the City of Boston for the use of the boat of that department and to
the officers of the Point Shirley Club for the courtesies extended.
William S. Johnson, Clerk.
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